1. Priverno: situation and historical evolution

1The roman city of Privernum (fig. 1) is located in southern lazio, between la latina and frosinone, about 90 km south of Rome. It is a long-lived site, inhbited since the second century BCE to the 12th century CE, the moment in wich the passage of the city takes place in the nearby hill, where the city of Priverno is currently located. The ancient city of Priverno which today can partly see in the archaeological park in mezzagosto, dates to the 2nd century CE.

Fig. 1. Map of italy and location of Priverno.

2Of the roman city today, we know some important patrician domus, with rich mosaic decorations, of absolute executive quality, the area of the theater and part of the public square with tabernae, a portion of walls that surrounded the urban area and the large sewer pipe, majestic work of hydraulic engineering. The ancient city of Privernum however, had a long and uninterrupted history until at least the 12-13th century CE.

3The medieval city continues to live, and its inhabitants occupy spaces and buildings of the roman city but transforming them over time according to new needs and above all by building structures that were the symbol of new powers and new economic, social and cultural asset. Among the urban reorganization works that mainly characterized the city in medieval times, there is that linked to the defensive system.

4The new wall circuit seems to surround a smaller area of the city, whose fulcrum must have been an ecclesiastical building, built on the remains of a previous structure of the roman age and which be later become the first cathedral of Privernum. Outside the walls there is the large sewer pipe, which has now fallen into disuse and near which a necropolis has developed since the 6th century, and the area of the public square with the theater, which is definitively plundered.

5The archaeological material found in Privernum during various investigations, begun in the 90s of the last century and conducted by la Sapienza university of Rome under the guidance of Margherita Cancellieri, today Director of the Priverno urban museum System, provides a broad overview of the testimonies that are the confirmation of the cultural vivacity of the city in the late antique and early medieval period (5-7th century CE) and of the use of the main architectural complexes, transforming them according to the new needs and the new organization of the city. One of the main peculiarities of the passage from the roman to the medieval city is that of not separating the spaces dedicated to the living, of daily use, with the spaces dedicated to the dead, who were often buried within the city walls, near religious buildings and private. But, in the wake of the pagan tradition, in late antiquity and throughout the early middle ages it was customary to bury the deceased with everyday objects such as, for example, crockery and drinking jugs, to which objects with ritual value such as coins could be associated oil lamps and loom weights.

6The crisis caused by the fall of roman empire affected Privernum to a lesser extent, this proved favorable to the changes in trade and transport routes, which from the middle of 5th century CE moved to via piamontana as a result of abandonment which the via Appia had suffered, which makes it an impractical trade route, this change in trade routes that diverts traffic inland, made Privernum at this time to a mansio, that is, a stopping point or stopover.

2. Preliminary study of the burials in the funerary area of Priverno

2.1. General presentation

7There are numerous burials, mostly dating back to the 6th century, found inside the city and near the main architectural complexes. Those of considerable interest are the burials, dating from the 4th to the 12th century, built near the large ecclesiastical building, which became, at least starting from the 7th century, the cathedral of Privernum. In addition to all these changes in the configuration of the city, the urban perimeter, the appearance of numerous necropolis areas dating back to the 6th century CE stands out. First of all, as usual in this period, around and inside the church numerous burials made in a simple pit, and dated from the 6th to the 12th century, are documented. The most recent tomb seems to correspond to an important person from the late medieval Privernum, buried in a burial chamber located near the apse of the church. On the body of the deceased there were 6 silver coins placed in correspondence of Justin I and Justinian, dated in the first half of the sixth century CE. Other documented the burials inside and around the church reuse rooms of the previous domus as funerary chambers, as in the case of that found in the domus of Soglia Nilotica, also dated around the end of the 6-7th century CE. Following the cleaning and arrangement of the area called Opera Idraulica in 2019, with the supervision and collaboration of the competent superintendency and aimed at a greater enhancement of this sector of the archaeological area, some burials, already highlighted in the 2007 excavation. Hence the idea of starting to analyze, not only the archaeological context, but also the skeletal remains, starting a laboratory, held in collaboration with the Municipal Archaeological Museum of Segni, in September 2020.

8In addition to clarifying the phases of occupation and abandonment, the 2019 operation highlights, near the area occupied by templar buildings, by structures in uncertain work and in blocks of tuff still from and from a large hydraulic duct, the presence of a funerary area, which must have been very extensive (fig. 2).

9The new cleaning of the area revealed at least 10 people, buried in a simple earth pit. All the burials, as already highlighted in the 2007 investigations, appear to be upset by one or more floods. The layers of these floods are very recognizable in the layers that cover the entire area of the burials.

Fig. 2. Plan of Priverno between 4-6th centuries with the funerary area in red.

2.2. The excavation

10The archaeological clean-up operations launched in 2019 provided new and interesting data on the city in the 5th-6th centuries CE. This necropolis (fig. 3) is located south-east of the main nucleus of the excavated site, between the large sewer pipe in concrete from the roman age and the remains of various structures (large quadrangular bases built with tuff ashlars or covered in uncertain), pertinent to the templar structures found immediately to the east. In fact, some of the bodies appear directly buried on these previous structures, which were therefore already abandoned and razed to the ground by the time the area was reused as a necropolis (fig. 4).

Fig. 3. plan of the funerary area of Privernum, 2019.

Fig. 4. Photogaphy of the funerary area of priverno dated between 4-5^th centuries.

2.3 Methodology

11The analysis of the skeletons and their context has made it possible to know the physical characteristics, living conditions and funeral practices of those who lived and died in this early christian settlement.

12The human skeletal classification has been carried out in relation to the sequence of deposition, degree of articulation, position, taphonomic factors, alterations, division of the components of each individual, according to their morphology, position and articulation, distinction of sex and age, registration and reconstruction of funeral customs, ritual, and items of belongings and personal adornment deposited in the tomb.

13The study of the graves begins in the same field work: the documentation of the exhumation of the bones and the registration of the data condition the potentialities and the validity of the later studies. This “field” anthropology must allow the precise identification of each element of the skeleton, the location of its exact position and its characteristics, along with all the other components of the tomb. If the preservation of the bones allows it, it must also be possible to record the measurements and observations necessary for a first determination of sex and age, which must be confirmed later in the laboratory. This field anthropological methodology is essential for achieving a global interpretation of funeral practices. It is usually impossible to obtain this information a posteriori, when it has not been collected in situ, and consequently the general understanding of the graves is definitely limited. The skeletal remains were recorded in field anthropological files prepared specifically for their documentation, and designed by Llorenç Alapont (Alapont 2011) collecting in them the topographic data and relating to the deposition, general position and the various waists, joint, face of individual appearance of each bone, biological and paleopathological information, stratigraphic relations, chronology, etc.

14Burials have been recorded with a 1:10 planimetric representation of the original position of the skeletal remains and the anatomical orientation and position of the bones. Photographs were taken of each level of deposition, and of each skeletal component. The type of earth, which filled the tomb and covered the skeletal remains, made it extremely difficult to excavate and exhume the skeletal remains. It was a very compact, sandy-clayey limestone landfill that would harden quickly and strongly when exposed to the outside. The work was slower and harder mainly for this reason. At the time of the erection, the articulated components were disassembled individually in order to minimize damage and alterations and at the same time speed up the extraction of the material, avoiding its deterioration and the progressive worsening of the conditions (harder ground, bone too long in the open air, etc.). The anthropologist later exhumed and removed the remains. The exhumation was carried out following the articulation of the bones. The lift was done by dividing the body into 7 anatomical sets: craniofacial block and jaw, chest, pelvis, upper right limb, upper left limb, lower right limb and lower left limb, each set was deposited in a bag independent well labeled and identified. The bags of each of the anatomical sets, belonging to the same individual, were deposited in the same plastic box and transferred to the Priverno Museum where the bones were carefully washed and cleaned, and the anthropological and paleopathological study was carried out.

15Post-mortem damaged skulls, jaws and long bones were restored with the aim of obtaining significant measurements. These measurements were performed only when the reference points were present and intact.

16The anthropological analysis and the metric, quantitative, morphological and pathological examination of the bones of each individual was recorded in the file designed by Llorenç Alapont (Alapont 2008). The so-called anthropological analysis sheet consists of ten sections: general data; graphic representation; inventories; dentition; cranial measurements and indices; cranial morphology; infra-cranial measurements and indices; infra-cranial morphology; estimated age, sex, height, general appearance of bones; and finally paleopathology. The metric analysis of the bone elements has been carried out on each skeleton, which makes it possible to calculate the height and know the typology of the individuals, and a description and diagnosis of the bone and dental pathologies and activity markers have been made.

3. Preservation

17To determine the condition of the remains and the type of information they can provide, the degree of preservation of each skeleton has been calculated. A preservation rate based on the expression determined by Walker (Walker et al. 1988) and Safont (Safont et al. 1999) which consists of the calculation of three indices referring to a given bone grouping, where the numerator shows the number of bones present and the denominator the total number of bones:

ip1 = núm. long bones present / 12

ip2 = núm. long bones + waist (2 collarbones + 2 scapulae + sacrum + 2 coxals) / 19

total ip = no. long bones + waist + splanchnocranium + neurocranium + jaw / 22

18Bone preservation directly affects anthropological and paleopathological analysis. Skulls, jaws, pelvis and long bones are extremely useful in diagnosing sex, age and height. Excessively damaged bones can provide us with inaccurate demographics.

19It is clear that the accuracy of the analysis is related to the quality and quantity of the bone material. Therefore, the bones were only calibrated when they were in a good state of preservation in order to obtain accurate results in anthropological analysis.

20Regarding to paleopathological analysis, we have considered that poor preservation can lead to data distortion. The incidence of both arthropathy and traumatic diseases affecting the limbs and spine could be underestimated in our study due to the poor preservation of these parts of the body.

21Individual bone preservation was good in most cases, with the cortical and articular surfaces intact. In some bony components, we have observed post-depositional alterations of taphonomic origin such as erosions caused by roots or by prolonged humidity, including cracks and sanding. We must also consider that when the corpse is exposed, it is subjected to a variation of the conditions of temperature, humidity, and oxygenation in which the body had endured.

22The survival pattern of the bony components of the Priverno necropolis is highly variable. The most obvious cases of destruction or absence of human bones recorded in our study are due to post-depositional actions, and the manipulation of the body, causing its secondary deposition.

4. Paleodemography

4.1. Sex Estimation

23The criterion for estimating sex was essentially the study of the pelvis, where sexual dimorphism is most marked. Structural differences between the skulls of both sexes were also observed (Bass 1995). Measurement of the diameter of the head of the femur and humerus, the maximum length of the clavicle, the length of the glenoid cavity of the scapula (Bass 1995) and measurements of the calcaneus and talus using a discriminating function (Steele 1976) were also methods used in conjunction with observation of the skull and pelvis. When the evidence was contradictory, the term “indefinite” was assigned to the individual.

24The category “indeterminate” was used for those individuals whose skeletal components were insufficient to attempt estimation. Sex estimation was not performed in juvenile individuals when the degree of accuracy was considered insufficient. Regarding the estimation of sex in children and adolescents from biometric and morphological data, we continue to be skeptical about attempts to have sex based on cranial measurements (Ridley 2002), or through the measurements of the jaw (Schutkowski 1993), or of the dental pieces. Statistical studies derived from the analysis of the pelvis (Holcomb 1995) are problematic for archaeological populations. The discriminant functions calculated by Schutkowski are applied to two different series of known age and sex, concluding that the direct application of discriminant equations yields worse results than equations performed in independent series. According to Majó (Majó 1996), the main limitations on the study of the sex of the immature skeleton derive from the imprecise definition of the reference points for the measurements of childhood bones and the difficulty of defining qualitative characteristics. We are more inclined to the possibility of detecting dimorphism in the morphology of the pelvis, however, the statistical studies of the analysis of the pelvis of children (Holcomb 1995) are not applicable to bio-anthropological studies. The size and shape of the bone may vary throughout its formation, although it is true that dimorphism begins in fetal age, significant secondary features do not appear before puberty and therefore before that time, the question itself remains without an indisputable solution. For this reason, we have declined any attempt to obtain a sexual diagnosis in child individuals, although we recognize the importance of knowing the sex of subadult subjects because of their social and cultural connotations. In our opinion only a DNA analysis can confirm the sex of immature individuals.

4.2. Estimation of Age at death

25The estimation of the age at death was carried out by all possible methods in order to include the individual in a certain age category. Dental development (Ubelaker 1989), the measurement of the length of the diaphyses of the long unfused bones compared to the tables (Sundick 1978) and the periods of fusion of the epiphyses were the elements used to estimate the age of subadult individuals. The age of newborn individuals was estimated by observing the development of the occipital bone (Redfield 1970).

26With respect to adult individuals, age estimation was obtained using macroscopic methods such as metamorphosis of the pubic symphysis (Brooks 1990), the degree of dental wear of the permanent molars (Brothwell 1981) and degenerative changes in the spine (Stewart 1958) and joints, as well as the degree of obliteration of cranial sutures.

27The individuals studied were classified into six age categories: children I (0 to 7 years), children II (8 to 14 years), adolescents (15 to 19 years), adults (20 to 39 years), mature (40-60 years old) and senile (over 60 years old).

5. Biological study

5.1. Result from 2019 campaign

28The different structure where all located in the same area (fig. 2) close to the cloaca maxima and the previous area excavated in the north. The post-excavation work let us conclude to a total of 7 individuals: 5 primary inhumations (plus 2 reduction all located into the T2 structure; tabl. 1). The age and sex of all adult individuals was possible to determine.

5.2. Sex Estimation

29Among the five adults subjects, and according to the methods describe in the previous chapter we conclude to a total of two female and three male. Due to the sexual dimorphism, the sex of the two enfants were not attested (tabl. 2).

5.3. Age estimation

30In reference to the chapter on the methods used for the individuals of Priverno we conclud in one male adult between 40 and 60 years old (T1), one male adult between 30 and 35 years old (T2 primary burial), two adult females between 20 and 40 years old (T3 and T5) and one enfant between 3-4 years old (the reduction in the T2 structure) and another enfant around 10 years old (T6; tabl. 3). The other reduction in T2 structure of the adult don’t let the age estimation possible due to insufficient bones element.

31The structure T1 (fig. 5) include an adult male around 30-40 years old, in primary position, buried in west-east orientation. The T2 structure (fig. 6) it’s more complex: one adult male around 30-35 years old in primary position with two reduction: one adult male (age is not define) and one enfant between 3-4 years old all oriented west-east. For the T3 structure (fig. 7), an adult female between 20-40 years old is buried in primary position and also in west-east orientation. The T5 structure is also a simple pit with an adult female between 20-40 years old buried in primary position on a west-east orientation. The last structure, the T6 (fig. 8) concern an infant, around 10 years old also buried in primary position with the same orientation as the others.

Fig. 5. Photography of the adult male individual of the T1 structure.

Fig. 6. Photography of the adult male individual and reduction of the T2 structure.

Fig. 7. Photography of the adult female individual of the T3 structure.

Fig. 8. Photography of the infant individual of the T6 structure.

32There is no particular deposit into the tombs, except a “bula” on the chest of the enfant in T6 structure (fig. 9). Even if the tombs are dated from the 6th century, the author Rebillard (Rebillard 2009) remind us that “during the late antiquity and at the beginning of the Christian area there is no will to mark the grave as Christian”. Priverno is a good exemple for observing the persistence of certain roman practices with the bulla but also local family practices (Granier 2014). The example of Priverno can be compared to what happened in other cities during Late antiquity: changes in social practices can also be identified through the treatment of the dead evan if we observ a mixture of these new practices and the persistance of previous belieds and ideologies.

Fig. 9. Photography of the T6 individual with the “bulla” on the chest.

Conclusion

33In summary, we can say that the excavation and anthropological study of the burials of this late-antique necropolis has provided interesting data on the change in ritual that occurred as a result of the development of christianity in the roman empire, and especially during the 5-7th centuries.

34As usual in these chronologies, the tombs are pits excavated in the natural ground, oriented west-east, with the head to the west and the feet to the east. This orientation is one of the few signs that differentiate the christian ritual, since in these first moments of christianity, there is no difference for the tombs that show a belonging to christianity, nor tombstones or grave goods that indicate the beliefs of the deceased.

35It is probable that this orientation took sunset as a reference as a symbol of the twilight of life, and the small variations that we usually find in necropolises would be motivated solely by the different time of year in which the deceased was buried.

36At the same time, the study of the funerary ritual confirms that a religious and cultural change has already taken place, as shown by some of the excavated tombs, in which, although the christian ritual predominates, practices of the previous roman pagan ritual still survive, with clearly lasting effects inherited from Roman traditions. This is the case of the immature individual buried in a west-east orientation, on the ground, in a supine position with the arms crossed over the pubis without any deposit. He was buried without a tombstone, something that may remind us of the christian religion but at the same time the child carried a “bulla” on his chest that definitely reminds us of the roman tradition. This tells us that we are facing a moment of change and transition, in which we still find reminiscences of roman culture.

37These indications could be confirmed if the excavations in Priverno continue in the future, which could provide interesting novelties regarding the funerary ritual at such an important moment of cultural change.