1 Bennet 2002, 216.
2 Firth 1950, 30.
3 Turner 1987.
4 See the review of Turner 1987 by Maines (1989, 1514–516).
5 Deaux 2001, 1.
6 Diaz-Andreu et al. 2005; Robin and Brumfiel 2008.
7 Important studies dealing with social organization and structure in anthropology are Firth (1951), Radcliffe-Brown (1952) and Lévi- Strauss (1953). I prefer to use the term social structure rather than social organisation because I am especially interested in identifying the set of social relations which could have linked the individuals in Minoan society.
8 Evans 1901, 15: “in this crowned head we see before us a Mycenaean King”.
9 Evans 1903, 38: “The existence of minor shrines such as that of the Double Axes in the North [sic]-East Quarter, the religious symbols found in the North-West Building, and the constant reference to religious themes traceable in the seal-types, miniature paintings, and terracotta models, as well as the votive double axes and other objects found within the Palace, make it more and more probable that there was a sacerdotal as well as a royal side to the Minôan dynasts of Knossos. It would seem that there were here, as in early Anatolia, Priest-Kings …” and in the same report “we have here to do with rulers who performed priestly as well as religious functions” (Evans 1903, 148). Following this, the lily-crowned head was restored as a Priest-King (Evans 1904, 2, 43).
10 When further examining the rooms west of the Throne Room, Evans assumed he had found “the Women’s Quarter of the Palace. These rooms are entirely separated from those of the Throne Room system proper, or the Megaron of the Jewel Fresco which overlooked it. They form one long ‘apartment’, the single entrance to which is supplied by the door opening on to the ‘Room of the Lady’s Seat’ from the ‘Corridor of the Stone Basin’” (Evans 1901, 34). Elsewhere, the discovery of clay loom weights was a sign for identifying the rooms as “women’s chambers” (Evans 1902, 94).
11 Evans 1901, 75. When discovering both rich and humble looking finds in the North-East Magazines, Evans was slightly puzzled: “The one deposit speaks of wealth and luxury, the other connects itself with the needs of a quite lowly condition. We know, besides, what magnificent painted ware was at this time in use among the Knossian lords. It looks as if these stores of rustic vessels, representing the survival of the indigenous potters’ style, were kept to supply the wants of a numerous colony of handicraftsmen, and perhaps of slaves, living within the Palace walls. Whatever new elements may have intruded themselves among the dominant caste, these humbler denizens, as the traditional types of their pottery show, belonged to the old Eteocretan stock” (Evans 1901, 75). Evans was indeed convinced that “companies of skilled craftsmen and artists lived and worked within the Palace walls” (Evans 1901, 92) and even that “[c]hildren were taught within the walls, and apprentices instructed in the arts and mysteries of their craft. The abundance of ‘rustic’ pottery has already been referred to as an indication that colonies of slaves or artisans of humble condition were domiciled inside the building. The Palace of Knossos, like the great Indian Palaces at the present day, was a town in itself” (Evans 1901, 93). That slaves were used is also assumed when discussing the drainage system in the East Wing since “slave labour was probably available for clearing out the impurities from the passages during the dry season” (Evans 1902, 87). See also Evans 1902, 67 (“slaves or attendants”).
12 Glotz 1923, 88: “Quand le séparatisme familial l’emporte sur le collectivisme gentilice, l’individualisme n’est pas loin.” Interesting remarks on the role of women also throughout his Book 2, Chapter 1. See Rosof 1985, 13–119, for a summary.
13 Nixon and Krzyskowska 1983.
14 Osborne 2007, 145.
15 Allison 1999; Souvatzi 2008; Glowacki and Vogeikoff 2011.
16 Osborne 2007.
17 Fowler 2004.
18 See Meyer 2007.
19 Stone 1997, 5–18.
20 Haggis 1999, 68; Varto 2009, 164.
21 Haak et al. 2008.
22 Bouwman et al. 2008; Varto 2009, 169–73 for a full discussion.
23 Liston 2007, 60 notes for Early Iron Age Kavousi Vronda that “analysis of cranial nonmetric traits suggests that there are concentrations of some traits in graves found within groups of houses sharing common walls”; Angelarakis 2010 notes Carabelli’s trait on the teeth of four skeletons found together at Eleutherna.
24 Hence the LM IIIA–B tombs at Mochlos, Soles 2008, 199. For LM III Armenoi, see McGeorge 1987.
25 R. Koehl discussed this in an unpublished paper (“A House is Not a Home: In Search of the Minoan Family,” Cross-cultural approaches to family and household structures in the ancient World, Institute for the Study of the Ancient World, NYU, May 9–11, 2008) and I thank him for the manuscript.
26 McGeorge 2008, 119.
27 Crevecoeur and Schmitt 2009, 67.
28 McGeorge 2008 (with references); Triantaphyllou 2005, 2010.
29 Nafplioti, this volume.
30 Isotope analyses can help to reconstruct the origins of some of the people (cf. Nafplioti 2008).
31 Meyers 2007, 68.
32 Driessen 2010.
33 Donlan 2007.
34 Poursat 1977, 20.
35 Rehak 2007. A MM sealstone without provenance (CMS II,5 no. 324) shows a man and woman holding hands.
36 Haggis 2012.
37 Relaki 2009, 2012; Sbonias 1999.
38 Risman 2004, 432–33.
39 Edwards and McCollough 2007; Meyer 2007, 69.
40 See Allen et al. 2011 for a recent discussion.
41 Monton-Subias and Sanchez-Romero 2008. I thank S. Lozano for this reference.
42 D’Agata 1999; Kopaka 2009a.
43 Kopaka 2009; Meskell 1998.
44 Driessen 2012.
45 Nikolaidou 2002.
46 Kopaka 2009b.
47 Rehak 1998, 191; cf. also Chapin 2011.
48 Alberti 2002, 114.
49 Rehak 1998.
50 Davis 1995; Rehak 1998.
51 For the use of tattoos in the Aegean Bronze Age, see Hoffman 2002.
52 Lee 2000.
53 Lee 2000, 119.
54 Barber 1994; Rehak 1998; Pilali-Papasteriou 1998; Lee 2000.
55 Lee 2000, 119.
56 Driessen 2010a and 2012 for some suggestions.
57 Triantaphyllou 2010, 233, 236 notes equal access for both men and women to Tholos A and B at Moni Odigitria. This seems to be confirmed by the recent excavations of a Prepalatial and Protopalatial cemetery at Sissi.
58 McGeorge 1987; Triantaphyllou 2010.
59 Appleby 2010, 150.
60 Leitao 1995.
61 Leitao 1995; Koehl 1986, also Koehl (n. 25).
62 Marinatos 2003; Capdeville 1995; Patuchowski 2005.
63 Marinatos 2003.
64 Rehak 1998, 2007.
65 Already Koehl (n. 25).
66 Dowden 1995, 55.
67 Patuchowski 2005, 29; Capdeville 1995, 207: “Chez eux, tous ceux qui sont sortis en même temps du troupeau des enfants sont tenus de se marier simultanément; ils n’emmènent pas tout de suite chez eux les jeunes filles épousées, mais ils attendent qu’elles soient capables d’administrer les affaires de la maison.”
68 Triantaphyllou 2010, 236.
69 Ames 2007.
70 Anderson et al. 2001 have stressed how “striving for status is a primary and universal human motive and even how in peer groups hierarchy exists. Status is a function of both the individual’s drive and ability to attain status in interpersonal settings and the congruence of the individual’s personal characteristics with the characteristics valued by the group. Status involves asymmetrical amounts of attention, such that those higher in the hierarchy receive more attention than those lower in the hierarchy; thus, higher status group members are more prominent, visible, and well-known and receive more scrutiny. Second, status involves differential amounts of respect and esteem; higher status members are more respected and held in higher regard. Third, status involves differential amounts of influence within the group; higher status members are allowed more control over group decisions and processes. Hence, we propose that status within face-to-face groups be defined as involving prominence, respect, and influence. A second important property of faceto-face status is that it is not taken by the individual but given to the individual by the other group members.”
71 Schoep 2010 for a detailed discussion.
72 See Duplouy 2006, Capdetrey and Lafond 2010 as well as Brisart 2011 for elites in ancient Greece.
73 Shelmerdine 2008, 115.
74 Palaima 1999, 372–73.
75 Shelmerdine 2008, 131 n. 3 leaves open the possibility, however, that the patronymic may identify the clan rather than the literal father’s name.
76 Shelmerdine 2008, 127.
77 Donlan 2007.
78 See, e.g., Soles 1988; 1992, 256; 2008, 188.
79 Driessen 2010a.
80 For a first attempt, see Legarra Herrero 2004.
81 Macdonald and Knappett 2007, 161–65, fig. 6.1.
82 Macdonald 2010, 205.
83 Macdonald 2010, 210.
84 Rehak 1998.
85 Pilali-Papasteriou 1989, 98.
86 Pilali-Papasteriou 1989, 100.
87 Pilali-Papasteriou 1989, 100.
88 Kilian-Dirlmeier 1985.
89 Smith 1984.
90 Bavin 1989.
91 Soles 1999, pl. IVb.
92 Kemp 1989, 307.
93 McEnroe 1982.
94 Mendelsohn 1946.
95 Stone 1997, 16.
96 Stone 1997, 17; Driessen 2010a.
97 Kowalewski 2006, 109.
98 Kowalewski 2006, 117 gives the following characteristics: larger towns or villages; attraction of newcomers, resulting in multiethnic, multilingual populations; movement to new places providing security and potential for sufficient production of food and other necessities; collective defence and fortification; intensification of local production and changes in the social means of production, placing new demands on labour, particularly that of women; intensification of trade; elaborate community integration by means of corporate kin groups, including greater emphasis on moieties, unilineal (often matrilineal) descent groups, clan systems; sodalities; rituals of intensification; sports events; domestic architecture and village layout designed to promote community integration; egalitarian, collective, universalizing ideologies and cults; migration myths emphasizing incorporation and ordering of groups; collective leadership, including councils, council houses, confederacies; personalized leadership and centralized, hierarchical authority are played down; macroregional cultural basis of coalescence and political-economic context.
99 Smith 1984, 474.
100 Hamilakis 2002; Wright 2004.
101 Diaz-Andreu et al. 2005.
102 Driessen 2001.
103 Legarra Herrero 2009.
104 Davis and Bennet 1999, 111–12.
105 Soles 2008, 198; Legarra Herrero 2009, 31; Schlager 2011.
* I thank the organisers, D. Panagiotopoulous, U. Günkel-Maschek and S. Cappel, for the invitation, N. Schlager, D. Haggis, R. Koehl and A. Chapin for making unpublished work available, and F. Driessen-Gaignerot, D. Haggis, C. Knappett, Q. Letesson and especially T.F. Cunningham for valuable suggestions.