A work of strength for the animals?

1In timber operations, elephants and their mahouts are involved in each step. Once a felled tree has been transformed into logs, it must be transported to a gathering place. Mahouts and elephants are then engaged in the loading of the logs onto trucks, which carry them to the factory for processing. On the way, they may also help the trucks navigate the challenging forest terrain.

Dragging the logs

2When elephants are employed to drag logs, they first have to be harnessed and equipped with a number of accessories. This equipment allows the animals to make the best use of their traction force and prevent injuries while working. At first, the mahout places a saddle pad made of jute on the animal’s back. On this pad, which prevents friction between the skin and other equipment, he places a rectangular cushion pierced at its centre, the gaddi. The gaddi follows the spine of the animal and creates a flat surface on which the mahout puts the ghedra (rectangular pads, about 38cm thick, with identical dimensions to those of gaddi). Depending on the elephant’s size, three or four ghedra are then placed to constitute a saddle for the mahout. However, the mahout does not always sit on the animal during dragging operations. When appropriate, he positions himself high up on the ghedra, thus not straddling the neck of the animal, but literally sitting over it. This position seems comfortable since the saddle is wide and composed of several cushions stuffed with straw. However, it is only by extending his feet that a man can reach the ears or the head of the animal to transmit commands. Thus, we will see that the mahout must stand up and sometimes remain in equilibrium when the animal lowers his head to roll logs.

3A lap belt, composed of a double layer of strings is wrapped around the animal’s belly. This is the sai pan.1 The sai pan consists of two loops at the ends which join the ghedra at its centre, tied with a small rope, the sai kat. This rope helps in maintaining the saddle formed by the ghedra. From the node formed on the saddle, the mahout then surrounds the animal’s chest with another double rope that constitutes the harness, the sai pan kho. In order not to harm the animal when it drags logs, straw paddings are affixed between the skin and the harness. This harness will be attached to either side of the animal’s saddle with thin new strings. All these ropes are made of morapat2 by the elephant owner’s mahout.

4Once the saddle and harness are attached, the mahout subjoins chains, the sai lik. On each side of the animal, chains are attached to the sai pan, at gaddi height, and extend from the rear of the animal. Two small wooden pieces are inserted at the centre of each node of the entwined ropes so that the saddle remains in equilibrium when the animal pulls logs. When logs are ready to be dragged or pulled, two new channels are rolled and hung by hooks. When the mahout sits on the saddle, he transmits gesture commands with his feet using the lakap. This is a kind of stirrup in which he places his feet behind the elephant’s neck. The lakap is used for the mahout’s safety. Placing his feet inside the callipers, they are not likely to slip when the elephant falls forward (see figure 8.1).

5Once the logs are ready to be dragged or dug, two other chains are hung by hooks or screw bolts at each sai lik. In Myanmar and Sri Lanka these chains are not used. The logs are pierced and the main chains are inserted inside the hole. This method is costly because it cuts through several centimetres of the tree (until the hole) before they are sold to mills.

6It is notable that when he drags the logs, the elephant does not wear the sai kho, the rope that every village elephant wears around his neck. In fact, while working, the elephant has to pass through the forest via small poorly cleared trails. Thus, the sai koh is taken away from him as a preventive measure because it could cling to branches and strangle the animal.

figure 8.1

7The operations of dragging and gathering logs are carried out progressively as trees are felled. Consequently, elephants and their mahouts must live in forest camps for several days. This is not the case for the loading of the truck, where elephants and their mahouts occasionally go into the forest and follow it with the logs on it until the truck reaches a proper road. Thus, for loading they do not live in the lumber camps.

8The following ethnographic vignette deals with a dragging session as observed in 2009. The following operations were organised by Chao Narakhun Manchey, an inhabitant of Jenglai Village. He is one of Chao Ekret’s sons, one of the elephant catchers with whom I used to talk at night. Chao Narakhun Manchey offered to take me along to observe Mohan’s working session, the elephant he had rented for the season. Mohan’s owner was there with us. As we will see, his presence was crucial that day for operations. The hired mahout was also with us.

2 June, 2009. 10 o’clock in the morning. Manabhum Forest

We left the camp at 10 o’clock. The mahout Chao Narakhun Manchey, the elephant Mohan, his owner, and I. After having walked on the track for a few minutes, we turned to go on a path made by elephants pulling loads. Chao Narakhun Manchey pointed out the top of a hill and showed me that the loads, produced the day before, were on the hillside. At the same time, he offered me a ride on the elephant’s back while the animal was not at work.
After having walked a few minutes on level ground, the path became hilly. It took us almost half an hour to get to where the loads had been left. Getting there certainly took effort. When we went back down again, the animal had to drag a heavy load behind him.
Three imposing loads were spread over an open space. Many coal black branches were lying on the ground. I realised that the area had been cleared by slash and burn.
The loads were not very long, only 1.5 meters each, but they were much thicker than what I had seen before when I was with Pia’s truck detail —who was the brother of my assistant Chao.
Narakhun Manchey showed me that it was mekai3, a rare species nowadays.
The animal’s owner and Chao Narakhun Manchey began by showing the mahout which load should be dragged by the elephant after having measured each one’s size and circumference. Once this information was given, the mahout immediately asked the animal to kneel by saying “Boit, boit” (Sit down, sit down), and climbed on him.
The animal then lifted his head and the man sat on the ghedra. In this posture, with his feet on the elephant’s two cranial bumps, he guided the elephant. He began by asking the animal to bring the load up to the path (see figures 8.2, 8.3). However, a cut tree not yet been made into a log was in the way and the elephant could not negotiate the obstacle. After a few tries, the mahout got down.
The owner then got involved. The animal dragged the load once the log was tied to chains. The owner told Mohan “Agaat ahaa!” (Come to me). He and the mahout then unwound the chains attached to the saddle which the mahout then wound around the load. Once the load and the elephant were tied together with the chain, the mahout went further away and let the owner guide elephant with his voice: “Agaat, Agaat!” (go ahead), he said. The elephant did so and, with his strength he pulled the load over the tree trunk. The owner called, “Hoy hoy, oigol, pischu!” (Finished! Stop!), once the elephant reached the path.
The animal stopped moving while the men checked the load ties. All the men then told Mohan to move forward by repeating “Agaat, agaat” several times. The animal, however, took on a stoic attitude and refused to budge. [Doubtless] conscience of the load behind him and the sharp slope of the path, he looked at his owner as if to say that he was unwilling to take on that slope with such a load. The owner then went in front of the animal and came closer. Slightly angered, he said “Agaat! Agaat!” twice, but the animal still refused to budge. There was a moment of doubt. The men persisted and the mahout even tried threatening the animal with a stick, but to no avail.
Unexpectedly, the owner then called the animal by his name, saying “Mohan agaat, Mohan!” A few minutes later the animal finally started going down the path with us behind him. The elephant’s footsteps were less confident than usual. It must be said that while he was going forward there were many obstacles in his way, such as small trees and bushes, and that his feet sunk into the mud on the less radical slopes. Mohan stopped and started often.
It was only thanks to his owner’s orders that he went forward. The owner often went on ahead to check the path and remove any obstacles from his way. The owner tried to walk beside the elephant as often as he could and spoke with him endlessly: “Agaat, agaat, hoy hoy”.
Even though the elephant moved forward thanks to his owner’s voice, the mahout still had a role in making the passage easier. He cut branches or trees, moved rocks that could impede or injure the animal or snag on the load. At one moment, he even climbed on the elephant in order to cut some bamboo. The path was certainly not rectilinear and we went through some difficult passages such as small turns that had to be negotiated with the load. Everything was done to make the elephant’s progress easier and he was allowed to go slowly and grab the branches with his trunk. Some of these he ate and others he used to scratch himself.
Each of the animal’s footsteps levelled the ground and made it easier for Chao Narakhun Manchey to walk behind by simply putting his feet where the elephant walked. As for me, I kept going back and forth from the front to the back of the convoy.
I was asked to wait for a few minutes at times after the elephant moved because the bushes ripped out of the ground by the elephant could fall back on the path.
On the way, I noticed that Chao Narakhun Manchey sometimes left the path to look for trees that would need to be cut.
We finally made it to the wider and flatter road so the animal could walk without help. At that moment men paid less attention to him and let him go on in front of us until the meeting point (figure 8.3). The elephant was already familiar with this place and I could see four other loads previously brought there by Mohan over the past few days. We quickly went into the camp. The entire operation took four hours, from beginning to end.
Back at the camp, the elephant would receive care before anyone else. Water was boiled for his bath. He was then fed several rice balls before being left free until the next morning. The mahout hung up the ropes and gaddi to dry. The ropes were wound around to posts planted in the ground a few meters apart. They had worked enough for one day. The elephant owner and Chao Narakhun Monchey went back to the village. Tomorrow they would come back with a truck to load the tree trunks and bring them to market.

figure 8.2

9The description of the labour performed by Mohan allows us to further analyse human and elephant conduct and the execution of these logging tasks. The description of log transport shows it to be physically demanding for the elephants. As such, the work should be appreciated for the size and weight of the logs they drag as well as the distance they are able to cover, and the different sites on which they perform this operation. In the above description, the elephant appears as an all-terrain beast of burden. Using the harness tied against his chest, Mohan could only drag the logs by using all his body weight and strength.

figure 8.3

10Regarding the capacity of elephants to drag logs, some mahouts told me that an adult elephant can drag logs weighing up to three tons. A survey conducted in Sri Lanka estimated that elephants could pull at least half of their total weight (Jayasekera & Atapattu 1999). The most imposing adult males weigh five tons, so they would be able to pull up to two and half tons. This survey also calculated that an elephant walks on average about 2 two kilometres per hour when dragging, and that the maximum distance covered —and recommended— for a working day was seven kilometres. Based on these data, a one-ton load can be drawn in two hours over a distance of four kilometres. However, these estimates take into consideration neither the topography, terrain, nor the log’s form and the length.

11This task can also be dangerous, especially on muddy ground and inclines, as documented in the above ethnographic vignette. Animal legs can easily sink to the ankles and the slope could cause the load to hurt the elephant. When Mohan reached the track and found flat, wide ground, dragging the log appeared relatively easy in proportion to his size. Consequently, less human attention was then required.

12Mohan’s conduct warrants further examination, however. From the very moment when the log was attached to his chain, Mohan’s mahout no longer sat on him. Mohan walked alone on the path traced by activity between the tree-cutting site and the gathering point. Mohan’s human accomplices were content to walk beside him, only communicating by voice. They ensured that Mohan was led in certain specific manoeuvres, such as negotiating slopes or turns on the route. In those situations where the trail was narrow, it was difficult for the mahout to sit on the animal so he walked beside the elephant to decrease the load. Furthermore, in all the dragging situations observed, the animal was always moving alone. If it does not appear that the weight of the mahout makes much difference, the presence of the mahout on the back of the animal can be a hindrance in crossing certain passages in the forest.

13Walking alone, and without the mahout on his back, the elephant gains a certain amount of autonomy. As noted, Mohan took this liberty to grab branches to eat. He also took the time to grab other branches to rub his skin. Furthermore, we learnt that Mohan always had some bamboo branches that he continually chewed. This is reminiscent of J. H. Williams’ comments in his famous memoir Elephant Bill, about bamboo being chewing gum for elephants. Williams also noted that elephants were most likely to comply with orders given when the mahout was standing next to them (Williams 1951: 49).

14In Myanmar, Williams also referred to a particular case of an elephant who did not like working with someone on his back. This particular animal would obey orders only when they were given by the mahout standing next to him (Williams 1951: 49). As we will see in the loading observation when the mahout sits on his animal, the elephant only obeys under threat of reprimand.

Loading the truck: strength, precision and clumsiness all in one.

“Not only did they have to drag logs […], they also had to pile them on trailers in perfectly regular files. Try to imagine logs weighing a ton that had to be lined up like matches in a box.”
(Mukerji 1938: 18)

15As seen earlier, dragging logs until the gathering point is only the first step for their transportation to the mills. Logs must then be loaded onto the trailer by elephants before leaving the forest. Loading the truck requires no ropes or specific equipment on the elephant’s body. The elephant only wears the sai kho around his neck so that mahouts give commands with their feet behind the elephant’s ears. Unlike dragging operations where mahouts walk beside their elephants, in the case of loading the truck, both work directly together and have to adjust their actions accordingly. For that, the mahout is constantly sitting astride the elephant’s neck during these tasks. He sits on a jute carpet, both for his own convenience and to prevent his clothes from rubbing against the elephant’s skin. In addition, I observed that some mahouts wrap small pieces of cloth around their feet to avoid injury. They form a sort of ankle sock that stops them from slipping or tearing their soles (figure 8.4).

figure 8.4

16The following describes a loading session observed in April 2010. That day, Pia invited me to join his truck for a loading session. We met a 60-year-old makhana elephant —a male without tusks— called Aipang, which literally means “to gather”. Aipang has a great reputation for catching forest elephants, but for the last 30 years he has been engaged only in timber work. The mahout, Chao Nakalang Mein, who teams up with him is the elephant owner’s son. This is the third consecutive day that the same team (driver, assistant, mahout, and elephant) leave the village to load the awaiting logs in forest.

April 26 2010, Manabhum Forest

We left at 10 o’clock from Jenglai Village with Shetry the driver, his assistant Chao Khang Khen, Dipen and myself. We went in the direction of Manabhum Forest. On the way, I saw a truck lying on its side at the roadside, which attested to the bad road conditions following a few days of heavy rain. Before making it to the forest, we stopped to buy some food to bring to the lumberjacks who had stayed at camp. The elephant, Aipang and his mahout, Chao Nakalan Mein, were waiting for us and joined the convoy, as did a lumberjack who was needed to help scout out the place where the loads were waiting. Then all of us took a path to the loading area.
A dozen or so log piles drawn by an elephant had been stocked there awaiting loading. The present state of the area did not allow a truck to enter or even an elephant to manoeuvere in it. The whole area had to be cleared of bushes and cleaned.
While the men worked with their dao, the mahout atop his elephant cut branches and moved them to a safe distance. The elephant was also attacked by insects. Taking a long leafy branch with his trunk he beat his flanks to drive the insects away. After only a few minutes, the hitherto virgin forest floor was an open clearing.
The mahout and his elephant then got to work bringing the loads from the four corners of the area which was about the size of a tennis court. The mahout Chao Nakalan Mein sat on Aipang and instructed him to push each log; the animal then bent into the work and with his head, pushed them one by one. He moved delicately in the midst of the spread-out tree trunks, bending down to push them and bring them together. Unfortunately, his own strength turned against him: once the logs began to roll, they set off on the wrong direction which earned him a lot of shouting and smacks on the head. The language used by the mahout was quite raw. I know a few common insults in Assamese, such as “hatikela”, which is often heard when men are arguing. The elephant then had to start separating the logs. He pushed each one of them meticulously with his foot and by sticking his trunk against the base of the load.
To get the elephant to finish, the lumberjack also held up a slender bamboo cane that he used to threaten the animal while ordering him to finish.
Jamming his trunk between his forward front foot and the tree trunk, the elephant pushed the logs together. While constantly rubbing and slapping the animal’s ears, the mahout screamed —not calling out orders but rather new obscenities. The elephant worked twice as hard and, with his head, gave the loads even bigger pushes to make them roll and line up. This manoeuver ended with the mahout calling out “hoy hoy”, meaning that the job was well done. The taps behind the ears didn’t stop since the elephant had still to bring the last log which was in the centre of the clearing. Once all the trunks were together the mahout let the elephant rest a little and, left alone, he stood immobile.
During this time, the truck pulled into place. The driver tried to get in as close as possible and his assistant showed the mahout where he wanted to park the truck so he’d have all the space he needed. The elephant and the mahout then had to move three of the loads which were in the way. Using his forward foot, Aipang nudged the end of a log with his heel to separate it from the others so he could push it. He did the same thing with the other logs that were lined up […].
The truck was parked in front of everyone. The elephant was instructed to place three thin mai4 (logs) in an oblique pattern from the trailer to the ground. These two tree trunks would act as the ramp upon which the logs were rolled up onto the trailer. The animal grabbed one gracefully by lifting one end with a foot and catching it with his trunk. He then rolled his trunk around it to hold it steady. With his head held up he walked toward the end of the log which was less thick than the loads that looked like electricity poles until he made it to the end of the trailer. On hearing “Biri, biri” (let go, let go) the animal dropped the mai on the trailer. The men then came to put it in place on the trailer so it would be perpendicular to the truck. During that time, the elephant had already gone to get another mai which he placed in the same way as the last.
The driver and his assistant come to readjust while the mahout-elephant pair took a rest. The mahout put a short stick on the elephant’s head to tell him to stay still.
The elephant went to look for the first tree trunk he could find. Using his front foot, he moved it away from the others and got ready to work. After staying immobile in the same place, Aipang grabbed hold of a new branch to whisk away the insects. All throughout these operations, his mahout used his free hand to hit the elephant’s body to drive away the insects.
The driver and his two assistants gave the trailer a quick clean, threw some branches and other leaves collected en route. They also prepared the chains. The animal was then ready to load the first batch of logs; he lifted his front foot over the first batch to move it away and put it at the foot of the ramp. He had to stop, however, since the men were not ready.
A few minutes later they were finally able to start loading. The elephant had very little space to move in the middle of all the loads. He sometimes stumbled over a log and almost fell. The mahout brought him around the batches of logs on the ground to those that were against the ramp. I could feel a moment of hesitation. Once a batch was brought to the foot of the ramp, the others had to be pushed away to give the elephant enough room to lift it up. He then rolled it up the ramps using his feet and then his head. To tell him not to stop, the mahout pressed down on the elephant’s ears. The elephant was then in the middle of the planks and holding the tree trunk with his head. While he was lifting the logs, the driver and his assistant each came on one of the oblique tree trunks and moved at the same time as the elephant lifted and rolled the wooden block (figures 8.4, 8.5, 8.6). At the end of every movement, and while the animal caught his breath and lifted his head, each one of them slipped in a wedge to hold the log in place. At the beginning the elephant lifted the logs with his feet. As soon as it was piled as high as his head he used his forehead. The mahout kept the pressure up behind his ears since that was not the moment to slow down. While the animal pushed, the mahout kept hitting his body since he was once again attacked by insects. Five movements were all that were needed to bring the logs to the top of the ramp. With one last push of the head, they fell onto the trailer. Unfortunately, they fell in the wrong position. Pushing the end of the trailer the animal then pushed the ends of the logs to line them up. The tree trunk was still not straight and stuck out of the trailer. Here, without words or any instructions at all, the elephant turned around and stepped over the mai to get behind the truck. At this time, using a small wedge, the driver blocked the side of the logs at the top of the trailer. The mahout stopped moving his feet. As soon as he started moving them again, the animal pushed the logs where they stuck out of the trailer and swung them so they would be straight and almost perfectly at the end of the trailer. The first batch of logs was then in place.
While the men on the trailer adjusted and held the batch fast with chains, the elephant and his mahout went off to the pile to get another batch. Still using his foot, Aipang rolled one away and pushed it toward the mai. Then, once everyone was in place against each ramp, the operation started all over again. At foot level, the animal pushed the log up the ramps. The driver and his assistant were both on the outside of the ramps, with the elephant and his mahout in the middle of them. They were there to relieve the animal and to line the log up during the operations. While Aipang was pushing with his trunk the two men, each on either side, used a wedge to hold the log, called gutka. The second log fell on the trailer, rolled along the load and hit the first log which was solidly chained and acted as a brake to hold the new batch in place. The mahout gently tapped the animal’s head who then went off in search of a third log.
This operation was quicker since all four were going forward at the elephant’s pace and following the load all the way to the trailer. Insects were increasingly swarming the elephant so the mahout, while tapping behind the elephant’s ears was also hitting the elephant’s back to shoo them away. Once they got to the trailer, the elephant put his head on it to push and squeeze the logs together, thus making room for other loads. Once the first four logs were in place, the elephant took out the two mai against the trailer because the truck had to manoeuvere in such a way as to let it load the four new batches on the side.
Among the remaining logs, a choice had to be made based on their size and shape so as to build a stable pyramid on the trailer. Their value was also a consideration since it will be part of the total value of the trailer load. The driver —paper and pen in hand— came to measure their circumference in order to choose the ones to be loaded.
The next log was not perfectly round. It rolled poorly on the mai and sat oddly on the trailer. The mahout and his elephant came to inspect the back of the trailer to tighten and push those logs, which stuck out. All the merchandise had to be fastened tight together so that nothing would fall or move about during transport.
At this point I noticed that the men were tired, as was the elephant. The work rhythm was less intense. The tenth and last log was loaded and the elephant did a balancing act. Since the last log was not perfectly wedged into the trailer, the mahout asked the animal to go up against the trailer and push the log with his head, as he did with the others. But since this log was on the top of the pile it was higher than the animal. The mahout kept repeating “upper, upper”, which meant he had to put one foot on the trailer and then another in order to reach it (figure 8.7). Leaning on his feet he then reached for the log with his head and pushed it to the end of the trailer. The elephant pushed hard, a little too hard, in fact, since the log fell on the ground on the other side of the truck. Even though everybody, above all the mahout, was screaming and cursing, I was surprised to see that no one took their anger out on the elephant. The men looked at each other and a few smiles brightened up their tired faces. Nothing was said to punish the animal or discourage him for having poorly executed the requested task. The log ended up staying there and space was freed up to load another one. Men and elephant were clearly tired and no one was screaming at the animal. Fatigue ran into fatigue, since the day was far from finished and they had to start the long journey back to the village.

figure 8.5

figure 8.6

figure 8.7

17In the situation described, Aipang clearly knew his job and performed the required tasks. However, even though he responded to commands, he did not necessarily wait until his mahout, Chao Nakalang Mein, asked him to perform certain tasks. Often Aipang decided for himself and took the appropriate initiative, including how to reposition the logs on the trailer in the most efficient manner possible.

18At the beginning of the session, there was a moment of misunderstanding on the part of the elephant concerning what the men expected from him. He seemed to know that he must focus on the logs, but he did not understand how to arrange them in relation to the position of the truck (and as an insufficiently knowledgeable human observer, I did not know how this would be done). What then was involved for Aipang to execute these tasks? To first push, gather and then hoist the logs, the elephant used his feet. With his trunk and forehead, he aligned them. In Sri Lanka, the same FAO report (Jayasekera & Atapattu 1999) cited above mentions that to load logs on the trucks, elephants catch them by using chains wrapped at one end like handles. It is then with their trunks that animals come to lay them on the trailer and align them with their head, as described above.

19While logs were hoisted on the shins, there was coordination between the mahout and the elephant, as well as with the entire team including the driver and his assistant. Moreover, when Aipang hoisted logs along the two ramps, they all advanced together at the same time according to the elephant’s speed.

20Throughout operations, the men assisted the elephant. This participation was necessary for the tasks to be efficiently carried out. They oriented and guided him, supervising him as a foreman might for a worker. Each one had a well-defined duty to complete the work task. For example, the role of the driver and his assistant, in addition to operating the truck, was to assist the elephant when he hoisted the logs onto the ramps. Using a small triangular piece of wood between the log and the ramp, they supported the logs and thus prevented them from slipping and rolling back.

Helping the truck

21The workday was over for neither men nor the elephant when the truck was fully loaded. The truck then had to leave the forest, get to a road and reach the factory where the logs would then be transformed. Although in this case the distance between the forest and the road was less than ten kilometres, driving on the track with such a load can be complicated. The truck had to go through difficult passages, and when it rains, as was the case on that day, the vehicle can easily become stuck.

22Serving a function akin to tow trucks, elephants are called in to help trucks through these difficult passages. That day, Aipang had to help on three occasions before the truck could reach the village. To do so, the elephant is always behind the truck, pushing it forward with all his strength. On this occasion, Aipang put his head against the log cargo behind the truck (figure 8.8), and his mahout, tapping the back of Aipang’s ears with his feet, encouraged him on, “dig, dig”, as the driver manoeuvred the machine to free the truck’s rear wheels. The total weight of the full truck was up to ten tons and the elephant was using all his body weight to push it forward.

figure 8.8

23In all of the tasks performed by elephants in timber operations (dragging logs, loading and helping the truck), the animal’s strength is its most important quality. However, the situations described show that animals, in addition to mobilising their strength, must demonstrate adaptive attitudes not only in relation to their environment but also to the humans with whom they cooperate. The descriptions and first comments made above allowed me to outline some issues regarding interspecies communication, the issue of authority and the subjective commitment of animals.

Interspecies cooperation in timber operations

A communication based on animal intelligence

24In the various situations described, communication between mahout and elephant is mostly vocal, accompanied by gestures and physical contact when the mahout sits on the animal. During the log dragging operations, until they reached the gathering point, the voice was the only communication channel employed by the mahout. As mentioned above, once the log was attached to the sai lik, the mahout and the owner when present walk alongside the animal in order to facilitate the manœuvres. Humans encouraged the elephant to move forward and guide him. In this case, vocal commands were very few, limited to two: “agaat” (move forward) and “pischu” (stop). Normally the animal moved forward alone. He only stopped when he could no longer go ahead, having mistrusted something on the difficult road ahead.

25During loading and the help provided by the elephant to get the truck out of the forest, tactile communication complemented verbal communication. Gestural communication between human feet and elephant ears was used to suggest that the elephant should begin, continue or stop a manoeuvre. To start an operation, the mahout pressed with his feet continuously behind the ears by small blows with his toes or heels. While the elephant was executing an operation, the continuous tapping allowed the mahout to tell the elephant to continue what he was doing and that he was satisfied with the job. On the contrary, when the mahout stopped pressing behind the elephant’s ears, the animal stopped and waited. He would have to restart or to make a short break so that, for example, the humans could install the braces on the truck trailer. Incidentally, in addition to transmitting work execution information to the elephants, gestural contact can also be punitive. The mahout can use his nails to scratch the especially thin and sensitive skin of the elephant’s ears.

26When he started pressing with his toes, the mahout addressed verbal commands to the elephant. These are rather limited. To inform the elephant to take a log on the ground, he pressed on both ears and repeated “dig han, dig han” (pull back towards you) until the elephant put the log down the ramp. Once the log was on the trailer, it is also by pressing and stating “upper” several times that the mahout encouraged the animal to align it. By observing his gestures, I noticed how the animal was able to control his strength when dealing with pushing the logs onto the trailer. It was indeed noteworthy to see how every time he pushed the log onto the deck of the truck, Aipang stopped just before the log touched the cockpit. On the contrary, however, if the elephant was careful not to come against the truck cabin, he used excessive strength when he threw a log on the other side of the trailer. This will be explained further.

27Despite these few verbal commands, the description shows that it is not just the animal’s role to catch and then drop them on the trailer truck. It is also his role to bear, balance, drop, and align them on the trailer so that the driver and his assistant can attach them. Considering the number of successive operations, the elephant made when loading trucks, it is significant how few verbal commands were used. There are no commands to express how to load a log on a trailer.

28For example, the English terms “upper” and “dig” are employed in various situations. Such commands are the basic ones addressed while dragging logs, loading or pushing the truck. Each of these tasks are quite different and occur in a variety of contexts: on a forest track, at the gathering point or on a hillside; nevertheless, there are no variations in the verbal command addressed. In each situation, the elephant understood that he had to push something higher without being told what. The Tai term for log, “mai” is never addressed to him. Instructions are also not precise. For example, which log to start loading first? The mahout only indicates the command to dig and “upper” among a dozen of them laying on the ground. This reinforces the assumption that the elephant knew what to do, when to start, follow or stop. Thus, while working with elephants, mahouts rely on their companion’s intelligence, understood as an ability to interpret human expectations in relation to the possibilities afforded by different capabilities in particular situations at particular times.

29As seen in Part II, elephants among the Khamti do not follow specific training for work in which they will engage. Once they become chang man (i.e. village elephants), it is by imitation and experience that elephants learn to perform the requested tasks. In the interviews conducted with mahouts, it became clear that the Khamti recognise an elephant’s working value for his ability to adjust and adapt to the variety of tasks in which they are engaged. For each working task in which the elephant will participate, it is by experience that they learn how to develop competency in performing them. In addition, it depends on the context in which commands such as “push forward” or “bring up” are pronounced by the mahout to his elephant. In the acts of placing trunks correctly onto the trailer of a truck or pushing it in the event of stagnation, the same commands, both verbal and tactile, are given to the elephant. These are given only according to the indication received (to drag, to push, upper) in relation with what exists in his immediate surroundings and the given situation that the animal operates. Any situation can be new and the elephant is always operating in a new working context. As for example, the verbal command “to dig” can be uttered in order to mean a log on the ground or the truck.

30It is as though the mahout were indicating to the elephant: “There is something in the world around you that you should be push/dig/up”. Here, mahouts rely on his elephant’s ability to recognise and localise that “thing” in his immediate surrounding environment. In addition, to show his confidence in the elephant’s ability to understand upon which “thing” he should act, the mahout never indicates the direction where that “thing” should be pushed/dug up. Command words are only effective in relation to the elephant’s ability to interpret them within the varied contexts for various purposes when they are uttered.

31There are clearly, depending on the given context and situation, several things that could be dragged or lifted by the animal. Indeed, at the beginning of the loading session, there are dozens of logs on the ground to be gathered, hoisted and aligned on the trailer. There are also many hurdles to avoid, depending on the size, distribution, and positioning of the logs in relation to space. The behaviour of the elephant must be adapted to the truck, the men and the space between each of logs on the ground. “Which one to choose first?” might the elephant ask. To correct the animal that does not deliberately choose the correct log, the mahout can either hit him (more or less violently), stop tapping him behind the ears (so that the elephant stops) or do nothing and accept the elephant’s choice.

32Thus, it would be false to think of elephants as beasts of burden who simply execute commands. Indeed, if humans determine the objects in the elephant’s world with which the animal must relate, this does not mean they suppress the animal’s intentionality. At the interspecies communication level, commands are only used as brief indications, and are therefore fairly vague, but are nontheless sufficient enough to allow the animal to cooperate and perform the requested task.

The question of authority

33It appears that throughout the described loading situation, the mahout was tough with his animal. Besides continuously giving small sharp taps with his feet behind the elephant’s ears —while the latter was working— he often shouted at him, threatening him with the bamboo stick with which he also hit him repeatedly.

34In the following discussion with Chao Nakalang Mein, I had the opportunity to question him on his attitude and relationship with the elephant during loading, showing him some videos I recorded. From his point of view, it was not just that particular day where Aipang showed he did not want to work with timber. Because of this he therefore had to be encouraged to drag and gather the logs before finally loading. He admitted to me that Aipang, like many other elephants, does not like working in logging operations. He told me that being very familiar with this animal he knew he had a tendency not to want to perform difficult tasks, such as loading several tons of wood onto the back of a truck.

35As stated earlier, Aipang has a good reputation for capturing forest elephants, but for the last 30 years, he has been engaged exclusively in timber work. The vivid injunctions reveal a mode of relations and communication necessary for this particular elephant, which were more emphatic on this occasion than others. In this case, his attitude could be seen as only somewhat abrupt or violent in encouraging the animal to work.

36What Chao Nakalang Mein said indicates the long-term character of relations between mahouts and elephants, and the understanding that develops through the trajectories of their mutually bound lives. Chao Nakalang Mein’s interpretation of his attitude toward Aipang in this instance suggests a long acquaintance with him. The degree to which Chao Nakalang Mein exerted his authority was a response to Aipang’s indifference and lack of motivation on that day.

37In the forest camps of Myanmar, U Toke Gale (1980) tells how he was able to observe elephants developing strategies to feign work5: “Many full-grown elephants are known to shirk work. They would press their forehead against a heavy log, tense their muscles, open wide mouths, and even groan aloud to give the impression of maximum effort when in fact they are just pretending to push the log over” (Gale 1980: 131).

38When Aipang was deemed to have failed a task, such as aligning a log on the truck only to have it drop, neither the mahout, the driver, nor his assistant reprimanded him. At that time of the day, everybody was very tired, and hence the men were sympathetic to their nonhuman companion’s plight. Chao Nakalan Mein’s attitudes to encourage Aipang, similar to the anecdotic story told by U Toke Gale regarding elephant’s deliberate strategies to avoid work reveals that variable elephants’ volitions are at work (Gale 1980: 131). It reveals a certain autonomy of the animal when he executes activities. Such autonomy can lead to a form of animal detachment or disobedience towards the task to be performed.

39Such variability in working and cooperation is significant. In some duties such as loading logs, the elephant may appear constrained in performing his tasks. But, as all the mahouts I met know, when elephants decide not to work, for whatever reason, it is difficult if not impossible to force them. Even by resorting to coercion their cooperation cannot be guaranteed. A reprimanded elephant understands that humans are frustrated, but this may not succeed in soliciting their consent.

40Obtaining consent from elephants, considering that they are personally involved and engaged with humans, is necessary in getting the job done correctly. We saw this, for example, when the elephant sought spontaneously to align the logs on the trailer at the beginning of the loading session. The animal seemed to be proactive and his mahout had to stop and make him wait until the driver and his assistant were ready before giving the signal to get the elephant to align the logs. In this case, the mahout could not tell me if he intentionally indicated the animal to complete the job.

41The question of authority and power within human/non-human animal communities does not go one way; it appears to be in perpetual negotiation entailing reciprocation. As stated by Vinciane Despret and Michel Meuret while studying herder relationships with sheep, “it is not a question of forcing, but rather of leading. It is an authority, as in one which authorises, an agency of strength rather than of power” (Despret & Meuret 2016: 52).6 It is precisely as they argue, “a form of authority that authorizes”. To create such a mutual apprenticeship, building bonds of trust and confidence is compulsory.

An adaptation of the animal’s conduct to his partners

42The description of the dragging session finally shows the difference in terms of animal interactions and conduct with his driver as opposed to his owner. This situation reveals that the relationship with each animal is not the same, and the confidence placed by the animal in his owner differs from that of his keeper. This can be clearly observed during the capture operations described in Part I.

43At the beginning of the session, Mohan did not want to go on the trail slope or listen to his mahout. It is only when the owner intervened that the mahout managed to make the animal move forward. Thus, it was only his owner’s voice that kept the elephant walking on the slope. The mahout for his part was following the owner’s orders to clear the difficult passage so as to facilitate the elephant’s work.

44The progress and conditions for implementing this task were very similar to a day’s work as described by Williams (1951) in Myanmar. The author presents a mahout and his elephant, whose task is to climb a small hill to retrieve and bring down a log. Williams described how the mahout particularly tried using intonations to encourage the frightened animal to stay the course on the hillside despite being laden with a very heavy log. As Williams told it, elephants feel danger and have a greater understanding of their environment than their mahouts. In my description, Mohan seemed afraid to move forward on the muddy path, and it took him a reassuring (or more authoritative) voice and the confidence of his owner to move forward.7 In addition, as seen in Christophe Dejours’s research in the introduction of this volume, working involves foresight. Thus, in the present situation we can also consider that the elephant did not want to enter into the trail not only because there was some risk for him but also to protect the entire team.

45This point about their personal commitment shows that elephants are well aware of their teammates. This difference in conduct between the owner and the mahout reminds me of an event I witnessed when I stayed in a forest camp. We had been at camp for five days and everyone knew their tasks and the worksite. The mahout and his elephant were very familiar with their duties: going to pick up and drag logs to the gathering point so that the truck can come and be loaded. While two logs had already been drawn and gathered on the side, the 55-year-old elephant suddenly refused to work. Her mahout became annoyed with the animal, tapping and shouting at her, but she would not budge. In fact, she refused to finish her work and even became threatening to the mahout. She brayed loudly and raised her head so as to throw the man sitting on her back. Food and injunctions were also of no help. The mahout seemed surprised at the elephant’s behaviour and her refusal to listen. Dissatisfied, but seeing that he was powerless, he decided to return to the camp earlier than planned. There was a strange atmosphere during the trip, but back at the camp, I was surprised to find that the owner of the elephant who lived in Assam was there waiting for us. He came to inspect the work and nobody, apart from perhaps the elephant foresaw his unexpected presence.

46The fact that the animal was able to feel the presence of her owner at the camp can be related to the results of several studies revealing the olfactory abilities of elephants and their capacity to adopt their behaviour according to what they smell. These surveys tell us that they are able feel the presence of congeners located up to three kilometres away if the wind is favourable. A team of scientists led by Cynthia Moss and Joyce Poole8, who studied the behaviour of elephants in the Amboseli Pak in Kenya for several years, showed that elephants were able to distinguish the presence of different ethnic populations occupying the area. In fact, animals can assess the danger presented by a human presence and distinguish between the different ethnic populations who approach them (Bates et al. 2007).9

47In this case, the human presence refers to the elephant owner, with whom the animal has a longer and deeper bond than with his mahout. Evidently, and this is also the explanation that was given to me by the mahout after returning to the camp: the animal knew that his owner was not too far away and took advantage of this to enjoy a half-day off work. For the elephant, the presence of the owner may have meant he could take a moment of detachment from work, authorising himself to turn off his attention to the difficulty of the task he was doing.

48By his conduct the elephant was indicating something to his mahout, but the human did not imagine that the elephant’s owner, who was also his own employer could be close by. It is nevertheless noteworthy that the mahout did not force the elephant to finish his tasks. Trusting the elephant, he realised that something was happening, and decided to return to camp. In the interspecies working relation between human and elephant, this point reveals the respect people who team up with the elephants have for them.

figure 8.9