11. Anatomical and Physiological Contributions of the Eighteenth Century
p. 288-299
Texte intégral
1The zeal for comparative anatomy had diminished at the beginning of the eighteenth century, when physicians rightly recognized that man was best studied by studying man himself, and that in every detail of the structure of a species, the anatomy of another species could be a deceptive guide. Nevertheless, there remained imitators of Duverney, who were making comparative observations on the different organs and who sometimes used those of fishes. Thus Petit, in his research on eyes, noted the proportions of the eyeball of fishes and the almost spherical form of its lens.1
2Various authors on human anatomy occasionally published illustrations of animal skeletons or their parts. For fishes in particular, Cheselden,2 in the plates of a treatise on bones, illustrated the skeleton of the ray (raie) and the jaws and teeth of the pike (brochet), the parrotfish (scare), and the bonefish (glossodonte).
Cranial osteology of the pike
Engraving from Cheselden (William), Osteography, or The anatomy of the bones; F. R. S. surgeon to St Thomas’s hospital and member of the Royal Academy of Surgery at Paris, London: [s. n.], 1733, plate D.
Cliché Bibliothèque centrale, MNHN
3In addition, there appeared illustrations of skeletons and other interior parts of fishes in some books, such as those by Meyer3 and by Duhamel and La Marre,4 which we have already mentioned and that were essentially devoted only to their natural history.
4But toward the middle of the century Haller gave comparative anatomy a new luster with his important applications of it to general physiology.5 Almost at the same time, Buffon and Daubenton showed that comparative anatomy has no less importance for simple natural history and for distinguishing among animals. Following in their footsteps, such people as Monro, Camper, Hunter, Vicq-d’Azyr, and Scarpa studied the subject from these new points of view and made discoveries that benefited the class of fishes as well as all the other classes, although the ichthyologists of that time, confined within the narrow limits of Linnaean systems, gave little consideration to them. Thus Haller himself produced excellent descriptions of the eye6 and the brain7 of several fishes; above all, he made known the various modes of suspension of the lens and sought to determine the correspondence of the various parts of their encephalon with our own. Pieter Camper,8 at about the same time, described completely the ear of fishes and gave interesting observations, although incomplete, on the brain of the codfish (morue), the ray (raie), the anglerfish (baudroie), and others, as well.9
5And yet the strict sectarians of the Linnaean school, fixed on exterior characters only, paid no attention to these discoveries. Who would believe, for example, that, in his anatomical work in 1770 Goüan would still seriously maintain that the brains of these animals had only three lobes and that they possessed neither an internal nor an external ear?10
Albrecht von Haller
Engraving by William Holl (19th century).
Cliché Bibliothèque centrale, MNHN
6It was not until some years later that Vicq-d’Azyr11 began to include more fish anatomy in natural history. He introduced their brain and their ear into the comparisons he made of these two organs in vertebrate animals. He also made this class in general the object of a comparative examination, but the division he made of the class, into cartilaginous forms, eel-like forms (anguilliformes), and bony forms, which he called spiny, proves that he still had only a rather slight knowledge of the class. His illustrations are even better proof. On the other hand, his memoirs contain several interesting observations that had not been made before.
7But the primary author on this subject is Alexander Monro the Younger.12 In his essay on the nervous system,13 he provided drawings of the brain and part of the nerves of the codfish (morue). In his essay on the anatomy and physiology of fishes,14 he showed the internal organs of these animals —especially the intestines, circulatory system, nervous system, sense organs, mucous ducts— in large, handsome plates. Finally, in his essay on the ear, he gave a complete representation of that of the ray (raie).15
8After these authors, who described all or several parts of the anatomy of fishes, we ought also to mention those who concentrated on one or another of their organs in particular. Their organ of hearing occupied physical scientists no less than it did the anatomists. Klein, as early as 1740, described the otoliths in their ear.16 Nollet performed experiments in 1743 that proved that fishes can hear underwater.17 In 1748 Arderon experimented directly on the ability of fishes to hear.18 In 1755, Geoffroy described the bony labyrinth of the ray (raie).19 Independent of the discoveries of Camper and Monro mentioned above, on the membranous labyrinth of divers fishes, which were subsequent to Geoffroy’s memoir, there appeared on this subject in 1783 a memoir by Hunter,20 in which he claimed to have known about this organ since before 1760 and described for the first time the exterior orifice of the ear of chondropterygian fishes.
9In 1789 Scarpa brought out his fine essay21 on smelling and hearing, representing these organs in fishes in quite handsome plates. Comparetti in the same year published a work22 on hearing in which he also very carefully described their ear, but his drawings were not very well executed. In 1788 Ebel, in his “neurological observations,”23 described the brains of several fish species.
10Also published were some observations on the teeth of fishes. Hérissant, in 1753, described those of the shark (squale) ;24 more recently, Andre described those of the wolf-fish (anarique) and the butterflyfish (chétodon).25
11Broussonet wrote in 1785 a memoir on their respiration ;26 Spallanzani commenced important experiments on respiration27 that were completed by Silvestre,28 and at the end of this period (in 1795) Fischer drew attention to the relation their swimbladder might have to that function.29 Before then, in 1776, Erxleben conducted research on the use of this singular organ and the source of the air in it.30
Anatomy of fishes
Brain and spiral marrow of a Haddock. Engraving from Monro (Alexander), The Structure and Physiology of Fishes Explained, and Compared with Those of Man and Other Animals, Edinburgh: Charles Elliot, 1785, in-folio, plate XXXI.
Cliché Bibliothèque centrale, MNHN
Anatomy of fishes
Internal anatomy of the male skate. Engraving from Monro (Alexander), The Structure and Physiology of Fishes Explained, and Compared with Those of Man and Other Animals, Edinburg: Charles Elliot, 1785, in-folio, plate XII.
Cliché Bibliothèque centrale, MNHN
12Some anatomical descriptions of the species increased our knowledge of their viscera, especially the abdominal viscera.31 For Hewson, their lymphatic vessels became the object of continuous, painstaking research.32 Réaumur revealed the substance that gives color to fish scales, which is used in making artificial pearls.33 Baster described the scales of some fishes,34 and Broussonet wrote a special memoir on the subject.35 The organ found in the snout of certain sharks (squales) that secretes abundant mucus was described by Lamorier.36
13During that century, anatomists and physical scientists frequently studied the electric fishes and the organs by which they exert their singular faculty. In 1714 Réaumur gave some idea of the structure of these organs in the electric ray (torpille), but with an entirely erroneous explanation of their effects.37 The strength of this faculty in the knifefish (gymnote) made it possible to form more exact notions about it. Richer tested it as early as 1677 at Cayenne,38 but Allamand, in 1755, aroused naturalists’ interest in the subject when he announced that it resulted from the same cause as the phenomenon of the Leiden jar, which he had just discovered.39 Adanson advanced the same idea in the catfish (silure) in 1757.40 Lott41 and Bancroft42 made Allamand’s conjecture seem all the more probable, and Walsh demonstrated it in 1774 in precise experiments performed not only on the knifefish (gymnote) but also on the electric ray (torpille).43 At about the same time, Hunter published accurate descriptions of the anatomy of the electric organs of these two fishes.44 In 1786 Paterson added a species of pufferfish (tétrodon) to the list of fishes that have this capacity45
René-Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur
Engraving portrait by Johann Martin Bernigeroth (18th century).
Trustees of the British Museum
14Interested observers were writing about the natural46 and artificial47 fecundity of useful species, how long they live,48 how to feed them49 and transport them,50 the harm caused by some fishes,51 their diseases,52 and even the castration of fishes.53 Broussonet made observations on the spermatic vessels.54 Bloch tried to prove that the curious appendages attached to the pelvic fins of male sharks (squales) and rays (raies) are not intromittant organs.55
15The reproduction of the freshwater eel (anguille) was a special problem for which a solution was long sought, and which perhaps has not yet been solved. Allen56 and Dale57 studied the problem as early as the eighteenth century; in this century, the nineteenth, Vallisneri,58 Marsigli,59 Geer,60 Monti,61 Mondini,62 Spallanzani,63 and several others made it the object of their research.
16Cavolini,64 in his observations on reproduction in fishes, confirmed among other curious facts the habitual hermaphroditism of Serranus (serran), reported by Aristotle. Incidental hermaphroditism was observed in several other species.65
Notes de bas de page
1 François Pourfour du Petit, born in Paris in 1664, a longtime army physician, member of the Academy in 1722, died in 1741. He published, in Histoire et Mémoires de l’Academie Royale des Sciences, (Paris), 1728, an article in which he described several discoveries made on the eyes of man, quadrupeds, birds, and fishes; and in that same periodical, 1732, a memoir on the crystalline lens in the eye of man, four-footed animals, birds, and fishes. [Duverney’s anatomical studies (see chapter 5, note 19) described in Histoire et Mémoires de l’Academie Royale des Sciences, Paris, for the year 1701, were not actually published until 1743; thus, though his work certainly predated that of Petit (1728, 1732), its actual publication did not.]
2 William Cheselden, famous English surgeon (1688-1752), author of an Osteography embellished with handsome plates, London, 1733, large in folio.
3 Meyer [see chap. 8, note 28] included illustrations of the skeletons of several common fishes [in a collection of 240 plates of various animals, Nuremberg, 1748-1756, three volumes in folio].
4 Duhamel du Monceau [and L. H. de La Marre, in their Traité general des pêsches published from 1769 to 1782 (see chap. 8, note 37)] illustrated the skeletons of the common carp (carpe) [vol. 2, pt. 2, sec. 1, pl. 3]; the ray (raie) [vol. 3, pt 2, sec. 9, pl. 7, fig. 3]; the electric ray (torpille) [vol. 3, pt 2, sec. 9, pl. 13, figs 5-6]; and the plaice (carrelet) [vol. 3, pt 2, sec. 9, pl. 12].
5 Albrecht von Haller, poet, botanist, anatomist, almost universal scientist, but famous mainly for his physiological works, born at Bern of a patrician family in 1708, professor at Göttingen from 1736 to 1753, became one of the magistrates of his country, where he died in 1777. The list of his works is immense, but only the ones I [Cuvier] have noted in the text concern our subject.
6 [Haller], in a memoir sent to the Royal Academy of Sciences of Paris in 1762 [but not published until 1764] and in more detail in a memoir addressed to the Royal Society of Göttingen in 1766, reprinted in his Operum anatomici argument minorum, vol. 3 [1768].
7 [Haller], in the fourth volume of his Elementa physiologiae corporis humani [1762], and in a memoir published by the Dutch Academy of Sciences of Haarlem (1768a) and reprinted in his Operum anatomici argument minorum, vol. 3 [1768].
8 Petrus Camper, anatomist, full of genius, and perhaps the man most responsible for making the study of comparative anatomy interesting, on account of his provocative discoveries, was born at Leiden in 1722, professor at Franeker in 1749, at Amsterdam in 1755, at Gröningen in 1763, member of the state council of federated provinces of the Netherlands in 1787 died of pleurisy at The Hague in 1789. He published no great work, but we have a multitude of memoirs by him, included among those of the principal academies. After his death his son, Adriaan [Gilles] Camper [1759-1820], published his anatomical descriptions of the elephant [1802; see Bruggen (Adolph Cornelis van) & Pieters (Florence F.J. M.), “Notes on a drawing of Indian elephants in red crayon by Petrus Camper (1786) in the archives of the Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Historie,” Zoologische Mededelingen (Leiden), vol. 63, no. 19, 1990, pp. 255-266] and the whale [1820], based on his notes and sketches.
9 [Petrus Camper], in a memoir originally published in Verhandelingen van de Hollandsche Maatschappij der Wetenschappen (Haarlem), vol. 7, 1762, but later reprinted in vol. 1, pt. 2, of a German translation of Camper’s works by [Johann Frederik Mauritz] Herbell [1784-1790]; and in another memoir sent to the Royal Academy of Sciences, Paris, and printed in 1774. This latter work can also be found in vol. 2, pt. 2, of Herbell’s translation [1787], but neither one is present in the French collection [of Camper’s works] published by [Hendrik J.] Jansen [1803].
10 Goüan [see chap. 8, note 39], in his Historia piscium [1770], vol. 2, p. 79. We should note, however, that the anatomy he gives for this class includes a myology rather new for the time, but the osteology is only roughly sketched.
11 Felix Vicq-d’Azyr, famous physician and anatomist, and brilliant writer, born at Valogne in 1748, secretary of the Royal Society of Medicine in 1773, member of the Royal Academy of Sciences, Paris, in 1774 and of the French Academy in 1788, professor at the veterinary school, died in 1794. He published several memoirs on the brain, including a large work with magnificent plates, and for the Encyclopédie méthodique he began a series of special anatomical descriptions of species taken from various authors [see Vicq-d’Azyr (Félix), Encyclopédie méthodique. Système anatomique, vol. 2: Quadrupèdes, Paris: Panckoucke; Liège: Plomteux, 1792, [2] + CLXIV + 632 p.] Hippolyte Cloquet [1787-1840] continues that work [with contributions appearing in 1823 and 1830]. The writings we refer to in the text are (1) two memoirs for “use in the anatomical natural history of fishes” (Mémoires de Mathématiques et de Physique de l’Académie Royale des Sciences [Paris], vol. 7, 1776); and (2) a memoir on the structure of the brain in animals, compared with the brain of man (Histoire et Mémoires de l’Academie Royale des Sciences [Paris], 1786). All three articles are reprinted in the collection of Vicq-d’Azyr’s works [published in 1805] by [Jacques Louis] Moreau de la Sarthe [1771-1826] (vol. 5, 165 ff.); the first volume of this collection features a biography and a selected bibliography of Vicq-d’Azyr [pp. 1-88], drawn up with care by the editor.
12 Alexander Monro the Elder, born in London in 1697 professor at Edinburgh, died in 1767 left a short essay on comparative anatomy published [in 1744; a revised edition appeared] after his death [1783]. However, the man we are speaking of in the text is his son (1733-1817), also named Alexander and professor at Edinburgh.
13 [Monro], Observations on the Structure and Functions of the Nervous System, Edinburgh, 1783, in folio.
14 [Monro], The Structure and Physiology of Fishes Explained, and Compared with Those of Man and Other Animals, Edinburgh, 1785, in folio. There is a German translation by Schneider [see Monro (Alexander), Vergleichung des Baues und der Physiologie der Fische mit dem Bau des Menschen und der übrigen Thiere durch Kupfer erläutert von Alexander Monro. Aus dem Englischen übersezt und mit eignen Zusätzen und Anmerkungen von P. Campern vermehrt durch Johann Gottlob Schneider, Leipzig: Weidmanns Erben und Reich, 1787, 4 + 191 + [5] p., XXXIV pls].
15 [Monro], “Observations on the Organ of Hearing in Man and other Animals” [the third of three treatises, on the brain, the eye, and the ear, published together], Edinburgh, 1797, in-4°.
16 [Jacob Theodor Klein, “De lapillis eorumque numero in craniis piscium”], in the first part of his Historiae piscium naturalis promovendae [1740, 9-23, pls 1-3], mentioned above [chap. 8, note 34].
17 [Jean Antoine Nollet, 1700-1770; his experiments were apparently performed in 1743 but not published until 1746 by the] Royal Academy of Sciences, Paris.
18 [William Arderon (1703-1767), extracted from a letter to Mr. Henry Baker (1698-1774), concerning the hearing of fishes; Arderon’s experiments were apparently conducted in 1748, but the results were not published until 1750], Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, vol. 45. [On Arderon and Baker, see Whalley (P. E. S.), “William Arderon, F.R.S., of Norwich, an eighteenth century diarist and letter-writer,” Journal of the Society for the bibliography of natural history, vol. 6, no. 1, 1971, pp. 30-49.]
19 [Étienne Louis Geoffroy, 1725-1810] in a memoir on the ear of reptiles published by the Royal Academy of Sciences, Paris [1755].
20 [John Hunter (1728-1793), Scottish surgeon and anatomist, brother of the famous anatomist and physician William Hunter (1718-1783), in a memoir published in the] Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, vol. 72 [1783], and reprinted in his Observations on Certain Parts of the Animal Œconomy [1786]; a second edition of the later work appeared in [1792]. [On Hunter, see Paget (Stephen), John Hunter man of science and surgeon (1728-1793) [with intro. by Paget James], London: T. Fischer Unwin, 1897, 272 p., in-16; Dobson (Jessie), John Hunter, Edinburgh; London: E. & S. Livingston, 1969, xvii + 361 p., XVI pls, ills.]
21 Anatomicae disquisitiones de auditu et olfactu, Ticini, 1789, in folio, by Antonio Scarpa [1747-1832], professor at Pavia and one of the most capable anatomists of recent times.
22 Observationes anatomicae de aure interna comparata, Padua, 1789, in quarto, by Andrea Comparetti [1745-1801], professor at Padua.
23 Observationes neurologicae ex anatome comparata by [Johann Gottfried] Ebel [1764-1830], Frankfurt an der Oder, 1788, in octavo, reprinted in Scriptores neurologici minores, vol. 3 [1791-1795], of [Christian Friedrich] Ludwig [see Ebel (Johann Gottfried), “Observationes neurologicae ex anatome comparata,” in Ludwig (Christian Friedrich) (ed.), Scriptores neurologici minores selecti sive Opera minora ad anatomiam physiologiam et pathologiam nervorum spectantia, Leipzig: Jo. Frid. Iunius, 1793, vol. 3, pp. 148-161, pls 4-5].
24 François David Hérissant, capable anatomist and member of the Royal Academy of Sciences of Paris, was born at Rouen in 1714 and died in 1773. [His research on shark’s teeth was published in 1753.]
25 [André (William)], Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, vol. 74 [1784].
26 [Broussonet, see chap. 9, note 11], Journal de Physique [Paris], vol. 31 [apparently submitted in 1785 but not published until 1787]. It was later reprinted in Histoire et Mémoires de l’Academie Royale des Sciences (Paris) [1788].
27 [Lazzaro Spallanzani, 1729-1799], in his works on respiration [which were not published until after his death (1803, 1807)]. [On Spallanzani, see Walsh (James J.), Catholic churchmen in science: Sketches of the lives of Catholic ecclesiastics who were among the great founders in science, First, second, and third series, Philadelphia: American Ecclesiastical Review, Dolphin Press, 1906-1917, vol. 3, pp. 115-146.]
28 [Augustin François de Silvestre, 1762-1855], Bulletin de la Société Philomatique (Paris), vol. 1 [1791].
29 [Gotthelf Friedrich Fischer von Waldheim, a German zoologist born at Waldheim, Saxony, in 1771, died at Moscow in 1853, received his doctor of medicine degree in 1798 and became professor of natural history and librarian at the Centralschule at Mainz. From 1804 on, he was professor of natural history at the University of Moscow and director of its natural history museum. He later became president of the Moscow Imperial Society of Naturalists. His numerous zoological publications included works on the insects of Russia, fossil mollusks, brachiopods, fossil fishes, the swimbladder of fishes, and comparative anatomy. For more on Fischer von Waldheim, see Mearns (Barbara) & Mearns (Richard), Biographies for birdwatchers, the lives of those commemorated in western Palearctic bird names, London: Academic Press, 1988, pp. 151-153; Gould (Stephen Jay), “The Razumovsky duet,” Natural History (New York), vol. 102, no. 10, 1993, pp. 10-19] His Versuch über die Schwimmblase der Fische was published at Leipzig, 1795, in octavo.
30 [Johann Christian Polycarp Erxleben, 1744-1777], in his Physikalisch-Chemische Abhandlungen [1776].
31 Koelreuter [see chap. 8, note 21], whose ichthyological memoirs included many observations on splanchnology [visceral anatomy], printed from 1763 to 1795 in various volumes of the Academy of Sciences of St. Petersburg, published separately in Novi commentarii Academiae Scientiarum Imperialis Petropolitanae (St. Petersburg), his observations on the viscera of the beluga sturgeon (hausen), vol. 16 [1772], and the sterlet (sterlet), vol. 17 [1773]. Steller [see chap. 9, note 21] carefully dried the fishes he collected, and descriptions excerpted from his papers, either in the volumes of the Academy of Sciences of St. Petersburg [1751, 1752] or in Pallas’s Zoographia Rosso-Asiatica, vol. 3 [1814], offer very good observations on fish splanchnology.
32 William Hewson, London surgeon [born 1739], died in 1774. [His work on the lymphatic system of fishes was first published in English], Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, vol. 59 [1770]; and [later in French] in the Journal de Physique [Paris], vol. 1 [1772].
33 René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur, intendant of the Order of Saint-Louis, member of the Royal Academy of Sciences, Paris, a scholar in all fields, but famous especially for his admirable memoirs on insects, was born at La Rochelle in 1683 and died in Paris in 1757 [see Allen (Elsa Guerdrum), “The history of American ornithology before Audubon,” Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, new series, vol. 41, no. 3, 1951, pp. 498-499]. [His work on fish scales was presented to the] Royal Academy of Sciences, Paris, in 1716 [but not published until 1718.]
34 [Job Baster, 1711-1775] in [a paper titled “De squammis piscium,” part of] his Opuscula subseciva [vol. 1, pt. 3, pp. 129-137, pl. 15, 1759-1765]; [the work was later reprinted in] Verhandelingen van de Hollandsche Maatschappij der Wetenschappen (Haarlem), vol. 6 [1762].
35 [Broussonet, see chap. 9, note 11], Journal de Physique (Paris), vol. 31 [1787].
36 [Louis Lamorier, French surgeon and naturalist born at Montpellier in 1696, died 1777, was a member of the Royal Society of Sciences in Montpellier and an associate member of the Royal Academy of Surgeons in Paris. His work on a mucus-secreting gland of the snout of sharks was presented to the] Royal Academy of Sciences of Paris in 1742 [but not published until 1745].
37 [Réaumur, see note 33 above] on the electric ray (torpille), [presented to the] Histoire et Mémoires de l’Academie Royale des Sciences (Paris), for the year 1714 [but not published until 1717].
38 [Jean Richer, 1630-1696, published his work on the electric organs of the knifefish in 1679, at Paris, in folio.]
39 Jean Nicolas Sébastien Allamand, professor of physical science and natural history at Leiden (1713-1787), well known, apart from his discoveries in electricity, for the supplements he provided for the animals of Buffon’s Histoire naturelle [see chap. 8, note 36]. [For more on Allamand and his additions to Buffon’s Histoire naturelle, see Rookmaaker (Leendert Cornelis), “J. N. S. Allamand’s additions (1769-1781) to the Nouvelle edition of Buffon’s Histoire naturelle published in Holland,” Bijdragen tot de Dierkunde, vol. 61, no. 3, 1992, pp. 131-162.]
40 [Michel Adanson, on the poisson trembleur] in his Histoire naturelle du Sénégal [1757], pp. 134-135. [Adanson, a philosopher and voyager-naturalist, born in Aix-en-Provence in 1727, lived from 1749 to 1753 in Senegal, where he gathered plants and animals as well as abundant information on Senegalese meteorology, cartography, and linguistics. On his return to France, living at first near the Jardin des Plantes and later, until 1772, at the Grand Trianon, where he was named king’s botanist, he published numerous works. As resident member of the Royal Academy of Sciences, Paris, he was known and appreciated all over Europe. In 1760 a chair in natural history was proposed for him at the University of Louvain; in 1766 the empress of Russia invited him to teach at the Academy of Sciences of St Petersburg; and in 1779 he traveled for six months, collecting plants in the south of France, Spain, Italy, and Switzerland. Married in 1770, he was separated from his wife in 1785, who left with her daughter for England during the Revolution. He had other disappointments, for example, not replacing Buffon at the Jardin des Plantes. He died in 1806. For more on Adanson, see Chevalier (Auguste), Michel Adanson: Voyageur naturaliste et philosophe, Paris: Éditions Larose, 1934, 170 p.; Bertin (Léon), “Les Poissons en herbier et le système ichtyologique de Michel Adanson,” Mémoires du Muséum national d’Histoire naturelle, serie A, Zoologie, vol. 1, no. 1, 1950, 45 p.]
41 [Frans van der Lott, mort en 1804], Verhandelingen van de Hollandsche Maatschappij der Wetenschappen (Haarlem), vol. 6 [1762].
42 [Edward Bancroft, 1744-1821] in his Naturgeschichte von Guiana in Süd-Amerika [Frankfurt and Leipzig, 1769, and a London edition of the same year, both in octavo].
43 [John Walsh (1726-1795), “Of the Electric Property of the Torpedo,” in a letter to Benjamin Franklin that appeared in the] Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, vol. 63 [1774].
44 [Hunter (see note 20, above), in two articles published separately, 1774 and 1775], Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, vols 63 and 65.
45 [William Paterson (born 1755, died at sea in 1810), “An Account of a New Electrical Fish,” in a letter to Sir Joseph Banks published in] Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, vol. 76 [1786]; and [later reprinted in] Journal de Physique (Paris), vol. 30 [1787]. [On Paterson and his zoological contributions, see Rookmaaker (Leendert Cornelis), The zoological exploration of southern Africa, 1650-1790, Rotterdam: A.A. Balkema, 1989, pp. 163-176.]
46 Hellant (Anders), Kongliga Svenska Wetenskaps Akademiens Nya Handlingar (Stockholm), vol. 6, 1745; [W.] Grant, Königlich Schwedische Akademie der Wissenschaften neue Abhandlungen, vol. 14, 1752; and Ferris, Journal de Physique (Paris), vol. 20 [1782], [all writing] on the reproduction of salmon (saumons). [Abraham] Argillander, on the fecundity of the pike (brochet), Kongliga Svenska Wetenskaps Akademiens Nya Handlingar (Stockholm), vol. 14, 1753. [Martinus] Houttuyn [born 1720], on the reproduction of sharks (squales), Uitgezet Verhandlungen van de Societeit der Wetenschappen in Europa (Amsterdam), vol. 9 [1764]. [Giovanni Antonio] Battarra [1714- 1789], on the reproduction of rays (raies), Atti dell’Accademia delle scienze di Siena detta de’ Fisiocritici, vol. 4 [1771]. Thomas Harmer [1715-1788], on the fecundity of fishes, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, vol. 57 [1768].
47 [Johann Gottlieb] Gleditsch [1714-1789], on the artificial fecundation of trout and salmon, published by the Royal Academy of Sciences, Berlin, 1766.
48 [Friederich Heinrich Wilhelm] Martini [1729-1775], on the age of fishes [1776]; Hans Hederström [born 1710], also on the age of fishes, 1759; [Ernst Gottfried] Baldinger [1738- 1804], on the age of a pike (brochet) [1802] (it was said to have lived 267 years).
49 [Johann Reinhold] Forster [see chap. 9, note 13], [in a letter to Daines Barrington (1727-1800), vice president of the Royal Society of London], on the method of raising carp in Polish Prussia, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, vol. 61 [1772].
50 [Herrn von Marwitz] on transporting fishes, Beschäftigungen der Berlinischen Gesellschaft Naturforschender Freunde, vol. 4 [1779].
51 Martini [see note 48 above], [on the harm caused by some fishes], Berlinische Sammlungen, vol. 7 [1775]; [William] Anderson (1750-1778), on poisonous fishes, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, vol. 66 [1777].
52 Anton Rolandsson Martin [1729-1786], on diseases of the skin (gale) of fishes, Kongliga Svenska Wetenskaps Akademiens Nya Handlingar (Stockholm), vol. 21, 1760; and on worms in fishes, Kongliga Svenska Wetenskaps Akademiens Nya Handlingar (Stockholm), vol. 31, 1771. [Joseph] Beckmann, on tapeworms in fishes, Hannoversches Magasin, 1769. [Cuvier says that Beckmann’s paper describes la fic des poissons, or the “warts” of fishes, but Beckmann’s subject is clearly Fiecks (or Fieks) in Fischen, tapeworms in fishes; see Bloch (Marcus Elieser), Œconomische Naturgeschichte der Fische Deutschlands, Berlin: Auf Kosten des Verfassers und in Commission in der Buchhandlung der Realschule, 1782 vol. 1, [8] + 258 p., XXXVII pls, ills.]
53 [Samuel] Tull, on the method of castrating fishes, [originally published] in Histoire et Mémoires de l’Académie Royale des Sciences (Paris), 1745 [but later reprinted] in Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, vol. 48 [1755].
54 [Broussonet (see chap. 9, note 11), in a paper presented to the] Académie Royale des Sciences of Paris in 1785 [but not published until 1788].
55 [Bloch, see chapter 10, note 1], Schriften der Berlinischen Gesellschaft Naturforschender Freunde, vols 6 and 8 [1785, 1788].
56 [Benjamin Allen (1663-1738), on “the manner of the generation of eels”], Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, vol. 19, 1698.
57 [Samuel Dale (1659-1739), “An Account of a Very Large Eel”], Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, vol. 20, 1699.
58 [Vallisneri (see chap. 5, note 21), “Dissertationem de ovario anguillarum,” originally published in 1712] in Miscellanea curiosa medico-physica, centur. 1-2 [but later reprinted] in his collected works, vol. 2, p. 89 [1733].
59 [Marsigli, see chap. 6, note 20], Giornale de letterati d’Italia (Venice), vol. 29 [1718]; reprinted in Act. Vratisl., vol. 5, p. 1690 [not found as cited; date unknown].
60 [Carl de Geer, 1720-1778], Kongliga Svenska Wetenskaps Akademiens Nya Handlingar (Stockholm), vol. 11, 1750.
61 [Gaetano Lorenzo (or Cajetani) Monti, professor of botany at Bologna University, 1712-1797; see Heniger (Johannes), Hendrik Adriaan van Reede tot Drakenstein (1636-1691) and Hortus Malabaricus: A contribution to the history of Dutch colonial botany, Rotterdam: A.A. Balkema, 1986, pp. 106-108, 123], Commentarii de Bononiensi Scientiarum Instituti Academiae (Bologna), vol. 6 [1783].
62 [Caroli Mondini, “De anguillae ovariis,” reprinted in] Commentarii de Bononiensi Scientiarum Instituti Academiae (Bologna), vol. 6 [1783].
63 [Spallanzani, see note 27, above] in vol. 6 of the French edition [1800] of his Travels in the Two Sicilies land Some Parts of the Apennines, originally published in Italian, 1792-1797; there is also an English translation of 1798].
64 Filippo Cavolini [1756-1810], Memoria sulla generazione dei pesci e dei granchi, Naples, 1787, in quarto; translated into German by [Eberhard August Wilhelm] Zimmermann, Berlin, 1792, in octavo.
65 In the common carp (carpe), by Alischer, Sammlung von Natur und Medizin (Leipzig), 1725 [this article, “Von einigen merckwürdigen Fischen Curland. IVDie unvermuthete Karpffen,” was actually written by Samuel Joannes Rhanaeus]; and by [Franz Ernst] Brückmann [1697-1753], Commerc. Litter. Med. Sci. Nat. (Nuremburg), 1734. In the codfish (morue) by [apparently Heinrich Friedrich] Link [1767-1851], Act. Vratisl., vol. 18, p. 617 [not found as cited; date unknown].
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Michel-Eugène Chevreul
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Michel-Eugène Chevreul
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Georges Roque, Bernard Bodo et Françoise Viénot (dir.)
1997
Le Muséum au premier siècle de son histoire
Claude Blanckaert, Claudine Cohen, Pietro Corsi et al. (dir.)
1997
Le Jardin d’utopie
L’Histoire naturelle en France de l’Ancien Régime à la Révolution
Emma C. Spary Claude Dabbak (trad.)
2005
Dans l’épaisseur du temps
Archéologues et géologues inventent la préhistoire
Arnaud Hurel et Noël Coye (dir.)
2011
