1 [Chyle, a milky bodily fluid consisting of lymph and emulsified fats, or free fatty acids, formed in the small intestine during digestion of fatty foods, and taken up by lymph vessels specifically known as lacteals.]

2 [Endosmosis, osmosis in which fluid flows through a selectively permeable membrane towards a region of higher concentration.]

3 [René Joachim Henri Dutrochet (born 14 November 1776, Néons-sur-Creuse, central France; died 4 February 1847, Paris), a French physician, botanist and physiologist, whose scientific publications were numerous, covering a wide field, but his most noteworthy work was in embryology. His Recherches sur l’accroissement et la reproduction des végétaux, published in Paris in 1821, procured for him in that year the French Academy’s prize for experimental physiology. In 1837, he published his Mémoires pour servir à l’histoire anatomique et physiologique des végétaux et des animaux, a collection of all his more important biological papers. In addition to describing respiration, reproduction, and the effect of light on plants, he has been given credit for discovering cells in plants and the actual discovery of the process of osmosis. His early researches into the voice introduced the first modern concept of vocal cord movement.]

4 [Tithymalus, a genus of primarily annual North American spurges that is usually included in Euphorbia, a very large and diverse genus of flowering plants, known for the production of a milky sap (called “latex”), a powerful irritant that apparently evolved as a deterrent to herbivores. In contact with mucous membranes (eyes, nose, mouth), it can produce extremely painful inflammation.]

5 [Celandine, the common name for members of the genus Chelidonium, a small group of flowering plants of the poppy family, native to northern Africa and Eurasia, where they are widespread, ranging from western Europe to east Asia. It consists of herbaceous perennials, with alternate, deeply lobed leaves and yellow flowers.]

6 [Radicle, the first part of a seedling (a growing plant embryo) to emerge from the seed during the process of germination; the embryonic root of the plant, which grows downward into the soil, allowing the seed to suck up water and send out its leaves so that it can start photosynthesizing.]

7 [Plumule, part of a seed embryo that develops into the shoot bearing the first true leaves of a plant.]

8 [Cotyledon, the primary leaf (seed-leaf) in the embryo of higher plants. Upon germination, the cotyledon forms the embryonic first leaves of a seedling. The number of cotyledons present is one characteristic used by botanists to classify the flowering plants (angiosperms). Species with one cotyledon are called monocotyledonous (“monocots”); plants with two embryonic leaves are termed dicotyledonous (“dicots”) (see Chapter 3, notes 39 and 40).]

9 [Perisperm, a layer of nutritive tissue in the seed of certain flowering plants that is derived from the nucellus and surrounds the embryo.]

10 [Pericarp, the part of a fruit that encloses the seeds and which develops from the wall of the ovary.]

11 [Prolific fluid is semen, also known as seminal fluid, an organic fluid that normally contains spermatozoa. It is secreted by the gonads (sexual glands) and other sexual organs of male or hermaphroditic animals and functions to fertilize female ova. In humans, seminal fluid contains several components besides spermatozoa: proteolytic and other enzymes as well as fructose are elements of seminal fluid that promote the survival of spermatozoa, and provide a medium through which they can move or “swim.”]

12 [Of the roughly 8.7 million (give or take 1.3 million) species of organisms estimated to inhabit the Earth, only about 300,000 are plants; see Mora et al. 2011.]

13 [A reference by Magdeleine de Saint-Agy to the first three (of five) volumes of Histoire des sciences naturelles, depuis leur origine jusqu’à nos jours, chez tous les peuples connus, professée au Collège de France, par Georges Cuvier, complétée, rédigée, annotée et publiée par M. Magdeleine de Saint-Agy. Paris: Fortin, Masson et Cie, 1841, 3 vols: 441 + 558 + 342 p.]

14 [Cornelis Jacobszoon Drebbel, see Volume 2, Lesson 11, note 44.]

15 [Rudolph or Rudolf II, see Volume 2, Lesson 10, note 51.]

16 [Robert Hooke, see Volume 2, Lesson 12, note 66.]

17 [Royal Society of London, see Volume 2, Lesson 8, note 96],

18 [Sir Isaac Newton, see Volume 2, Lesson 11, note 37.]

19 [Micrographia, or some physiological descriptions of minute bodies made by magnifying glasses, with observations and inquiries thereupon. London: J. Martyn &J. Allestry, 1665, [18] + 246 + [10] p., see Volume 2, Lesson 18, note 9.]

20 [Thomas Henshaw, see Volume 2, Lesson 18, note 7.]

21 [Nehemiah Grew (born 26 September 1641, Warwickshire; died 25 March 1712, London), an English plant anatomist and physiologist, widely recognized as the Father of Plant Anatomy (note that Magdeleine de Saint-Agy incorrectly cites Grew’s dates of birth and death).]

22 [An Idea of a Phytological History Propounded, Together with a Continuation of the Anatomy of Vegetables, Particularly Prosecuted Upon Roots, and an Account of the Vegetation of Roots, Grounded Chiefly Thereupon. London: Richard Chiswell, 1673, [22] + 144 + [32] p., 8 pls.]

23 [The Anatomy of Plants, with an Idea of a Philosophical History of Plants, and Several Other Lectures, Read Before the Royal Society. London: William Rawlins, for the author, 1682, 11 + 304 + [19] pp., 83 pls; see Volume 2, Lesson 16, note 25.]

24 [A French translation by Louis Le Vasseur of Grew’s earliest work (see note 22, above) was published in 1675 (followed by a second French edition in 1679), entitled Anatomie des plantes, qui contient une description exacte de leurs parties & de leurs usages & qui fait voir comment elles se forment, & comment elles croissent (Paris: Lambert Roulland, 1675, frontispiece, [24] + 215 + [12] p., 14 pls, in-duodecimo); but I have been unable to identify a Le Vasseur translation of Grew’s work dating to 1715.]

25 [Stomatal pores, or stomata, tiny openings in the epidermis of leaves, stems, and other organs of vascular plants that function to control gas exchange.]

26 [Nicolas-Théodore de Saussure, see Volume 2, Lesson 18, note 17.]

27 [Augustin Pyramus de Candolle, see Volume 2, Lesson 18, note 18.]

28 [Michel-Louis Reneaume, see Volume 2, Lesson 18, note 19.]

29 [“Observations sur le suc nourricier des plantes.” Mémoires de mathématique et de physique de l’Académie royale des sciences, 28 June 1707, pp. 276-289.]

30 [Charles Bonnet, see Volume 3, Lesson 2, note 6.]

31 [Recherches sur l’usage des feuilles dans les plantes, et sur quelques autres sujets relatifs à l’histoire de la végétation. Göttingen; Leiden: Élie Luzac, 1754, viii + 343 p., 31 pls.]

32 [Marcello Malpighi, see Volume 2, Lesson 14, note 121.]

33 [Sent to the Royal Society in 1671 and published the following year: Anatome plantarum. Cui subjungitur appendix iteratas & auctas ejusdem authoris de ovo incubato observationes continens. London: John Martyn, 1672, [4] + 15 + [5] + 82 + [2] + 20 p.; the second part appeared in 1674: Anatome plantarum pars altera. London, 1674, [8] + 93 + [3] p. The two volumes were reprinted in 1675 and 1679, London: John Martyn, in-folio, each with an elaborately engraved allegorical frontispiece by Robert White.]

34 [In Opera omnia Malpighi, see Volume 2, Lesson 15, note 41.]

35 [Opera posthuma, edited by Petrus Regis; see Volume 2, Lesson 15, note 42.]

36 [Ludolph Christian Treviranus (born 18 September 1779, Bremen; 6 May 1864, Bonn), a German botanist, a younger brother of the naturalist Gottfried Reinhold Treviranus (1776-1837). He worked mostly in the fields of plant anatomy and physiology, afterwards focusing on taxonomic issues. Between 1815 and 1828, he published noted works on the sexuality and embryology of phanerogams (plants that produces seeds rather than spores). He is credited for discovery of the intercellular space in the parenchyma of plants.]

37 [Sébastien Vaillant, see Volume 2, Lesson 18, note 31.]

38 [Thomas Millington (born 1628, Newbury; died 5 January 1703/04, Gosfield), an English physician, educated at the Westminster School, then in 1645 at Trinity College, Cambridge, and from there to Oxford University. He was elected a fellow of All Souls College and became a doctor of medicine at Oxford on 9 July 1659. Appointed to the chair of Sedleian Professor of Natural Philosophy in 1675, a position he held for life. Admitted as a candidate for the College of Physicians in 1659, he became a Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians in 1672. Legend has it that he ventured into a conversation with Nehemiah Grew that the stamen serves as the male organ for the production of the seed. Grew at once replied that he was of the same opinion, gave some reasons for thinking so, and answered some objections which might be made to it. Grew further explored this idea and found that stamens with their thecae are male sex organs while pistils represent the female organs. These ideas were published by Grew in his Anatomy of Plants in 1682 (see note 23, above), which is today regarded as a major milepost in the development of botanical science. For more on Millington and the sexuality of plants, see Bennett 1875.]

39 [Giovanni Girolamo Sbaraglia (born 28 October 1641, Bologna; died 8 June 1710, Bologna), an Italian physician and anatomist, professor of philosophy and medicine at the University of Bologna, author of Oculorum et mentis vigiliae ad distinguendum studium anatomicum, et ad praxin medicam dirigendam, accedit Mantissa subsidiaria de vi indicationis à parte, et de usu microscopii. Bologna: Petri-Mariae Monti, 1704, xlviii + 700 p.]

40 [Giovanni-Battista Trionfetti (born 1658-died 1708), an Italian naturalist, educated in Bologna, curator of the botanical garden of the Roman Sapienza, and author of Observationes de ortu ac vegetatione plantarum, cum novarum stirpium historia iconibus illustrate. Rome: Dominicus Antonius Hercules, 1685, [6] + 106 p., 17 pls; in addition to leading the attack on the Malpighi’s theory of the preformation of the living in the vegetable seed or animal egg, he supported the idea of spontaneous generation of the so-called “imperfect organisms.”]

41 [Bernard Le Bovier de Fontenelle, see Volume 2, Lesson 12, note 126.]

42 [Antonie Philips van Leeuwenhoek, see Volume 2, Lesson 15, note 14.]

43 [For monocotyledons and dicotyledons, see Chapter 3, notes 39 and 40.]

44 [Claude Perrault, see Volume 2, Lesson 12, note 113.]

45 [Denis Dodart, see Volume 2, Lesson 12, note 120.]

46 [Mémoires pour servir à l’histoire des plantes. Paris: Sebastien Mabre-Cramoisy at l’Imprimerie Royale, 1676, [4] + 131 + [1] p., 39 pls.]

47 [René Joachim Henri Dutrochet, see Volume 2, Lesson 7, note 110.]

48 [L’agent immédiat du mouvement vital dévoilé dans sa nature et dans son mode d’action chez les végétaux et chez les animaux. Paris: Dentu, 1826, viii + 9-228 p.]

49 [Edme Mariotte, see Volume 2, Lesson 18, note 47.]

50 [Premier Essay de la Végétation des Plantes. Paris: Estienne Michallet, 1679, [4] + 179 p.]

51 [John Woodward, see Volume 2, Lesson 18, note 48.]

52 [Jan Baptist van Helmont, see Volume 2, Lesson 10, note 66.]

53 [Vegetable Staticks: Or, An Account of Some Statical Experiments on the Sap in Vegetables: being an Essay Towards a Natural History of Vegetation, Also, a Specimen of an Attempt to Analyse the Air, by a Great Variety of Chymio-statical Experiments; Which Were Read at Several Meetings Before the Royal Society. London: W. & J. Innys; T. Woodward, 1727, [6] + vii + [2] + 376 p. For Stephen Hales, see Volume 2, Lesson 13, note 87.]

54 [Augusta of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg (born 30 November 1719, Gotha, Duchy of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg; died 8 February 1772, London), Princess of Wales by marriage to Frederick, Prince of Wales (1707-1751). She was one of only four Princesses of Wales who never became queen consort, since her eldest son succeeded her father-in-law as George III of the United Kingdom in 1760 rather than her spouse, who had died nine years earlier. Augusta was presumptive regent of Great Britain in the event of a regency between the death of her spouse in 1751, until the majority of her son in 1756, though in the event her father-in-law, George II, lived until 1760. Hales became clerk of the closet of the Princess in 1751, and subsequently made chaplain to her and to her son, the future George III.]

55 [The Canons of Windsor, the ecclesiastical body of St. George’s Chapel at Windsor Castle. Although Hales was offered the Canonry of Windsor by the royal family, he maintained an active ministry at Teddington until his death on 4 January 1761.]

56 [Hales 1727, see note 53, above.]

57 [La Statique des végétaux et l’analyse de l’air. Expériences nouvelles lues à la Société Royale de Londres… Ouvrage traduit de l’Anglois, par M. De Buffon, de l’Académie Royale des Sciences. Paris: Debure l’aîné, 1735, xviii + [8] + 408 p. For Buffon, see Volume 1, Lesson 7, note 39; Volume 2, Lesson 4, note 57]

58 [“Theophrastus recounts how one succeeds in making female date-trees bear fruit; one need only shake some branches of the male date tree over them. This fact should have led him to the discovery of the sex of plants; but he had no idea of this, although he often applied the terms male and female to trees” (see Volume 1, page 298); “The ancients had some inkling of plant physiology; they knew that certain plants could not reproduce except with the help of other plants, but they were far from the theory of the sexes that we apply now to all plants save the cryptogams; they had no clear idea of the true mode of plant fertilization” (see Volume 1, page 560).]

59 [For cryptogams, see Chapter 3, note 38.]

60 [For Millington and his discussion with Grew, see note 38, above.]

61 [Jacob Bobart the Younger (born 2 August 1641, Oxford; died 28 December 1719), an English botanist, the younger son of Jacob Bobart (see note 62, below). He succeeded his father as superintendent of the Oxford Botanic Garden, and on the death of Robert Morison in 1683, lectured as botanical professor. In 1699 he published the third part of Morison’s Historia Plantarum (see note 64, below), the second having been issued during the writer’s life in 1680, whilst the first was never printed.]

62 [Jacob Bobart the Elder (born 1599, Brunswick; died 4 February 1680, Oxford), first head gardener of the Oxford Botanic Garden; see Volume 2, Lesson 18, note 22.]

63 [Henry Danvers, 1st Earl of Danby (born 25 June 1573, Dauntsey, Wiltshire; died 29 January 1644, Oxfordshire), an English soldier; outlawed after a killing, he regained favor and became a Knight of the Garter.]

64 [Robert Morison (see Volume 2, Lesson 18, note 57), author of Historia plantarum, species hactenus editas aliasque insuper multas noviter inventas & descriptas complectens, in qua agitur primo de plantis in genere, earumque partibus accidentibus & differentiis. London: Henricum Faithorne, 1686-1704, 3 vols, in-folio; Bobart’s edition, which consists only of the third part of Morison’s work, is titled Plantarum Historiae Universalis Oxoniensis pars tertia seu herbarum distributio nova, per tabulas cognationis & affinitatis ex libro naturae observata & detecta. Oxford: Theatro Sheldoniano, 1699, [xii] + 657 + [12] p., 166 pls, in-folio.]

65 [For Lychnis dioica, the Red Campion, see Volume 2, Lesson 18, note 23.]

66 [John Ray, see Volume 2, Lesson 3, note 94.]

67 [Historia plantarum, species hactenus editas aliasque insuper multas noviter inventas & descriptas complectens. London: Typis Mariae Clark, prostant apud Henricum Faithorne & Joannem Kersey, 1686, vol. 1: [24] + 983 p.]

68 [The theory of plant sexually, which Ray had proposed in his Historia plantarum (see note 67, above), published in 1686, thus belongs to the English and it is an error to credit Rudolf Jakob Camerarius (see Volume 2, Lesson 18, note 25), a professor from Tübingen, with this discovery; he merely talked about it in a thesis on the sex of plants that he defended in 1694. Camerarius, however, is credited with having added new evidence to what had already existed, thanks to his experiments on hemp. He isolated individual plants that only had pistils, so, thus removed from the action of the stamen, no pollination occurred; their seed did not germinate.]

69 [De sexu plantarum epistola, see Volume 2, Lesson 18, note 25.]

70 [Dissertatio de convenientia plantarum in fructificatione et viribus. Tübingen: typis Joh. Conradi Reisi, 1699, 16 p., in-quarto.]

71 [Augustin Pyramus de Candolle, see Volume 2, Lesson 18, note 18.]

72 [Paolo Silvio Boccone, see Volume 2, Lesson 12, note 107.]

73 [Museo di plante rare della Sicilia, Malta, Corsica, Italia, Piemonte, e Germania… con l’Appendix ad libros de plantis Andreae Caesalpini, e varie osservazioni curiose con sue figure in rame. Venice: Io. Baptista Zuccato, 1697, [7] + 196 p., 130 pls.]

74 [Joseph Pitton de Tournefort, see Volume 2, Lesson 13, note 31.]

75 [Johann Heinrich Burckhard, see Volume 2, Lesson 18, note 27.]

76 [Epistola ad illustrem & excellentissimum virum dominee godofredvm gvilielmvm Leibnitivm, polyhistorem Consummatissimum, qua characterem plantarum naturalem nec a radicibus, nec ab aliis plantarum partibus, minus essentialibus, pluribus discriminandi capitibus constitutis, peti posse ostendit, simulq [ue] in comparationem plantarum, quam partes earum genital suppeditant, paucis inquirit Jo. Henry VIII. Burckhard, Med. Doct. Göttingen: Niedersächsische Staats- und Universitätsbibliothek Göttingen, 1702, 32 p., in-quarto. For Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, see Volume 1, Lesson 6, note 22.]

77 [Linnaeus’s famous “sexual system,” see Chapter 3, note 10.]

78 [Lorenz Heister, see Volume 3, Lesson 14, note 30.]

79 [When Linnaeus first published his ideas about his sexual system in Systema naturae (1735) and refined them in Fundamenta botanica (1736), Genera plantarum (1737), and Critica botanica (1737), he was severely criticized by Christian Gottlieb Ludwig (1709-1773, German physician, professor of medicine at Leipzig), Johann Georg Siegesbeck (1686-1755, German-Prussian botanist, doctor of medicine at Wittenberg), and Lorenz Heister, of whom Heister was the most important.]

80 [Sébastien Vaillant, author of Discours sur la structure des fleurs, leurs différences et l’usage de leurs parties. Leiden: Pierre van der Aa, 1718, 55 p., in-4°. For more on Vaillant, see Volume 2, Lesson 18, note 31.]

81 [Louis, Duke of Burgundy and later Dauphin of France, see Volume 3, Lesson 20, note 55.]

82 [Guy-Crescent Fagon, see Volume 2, Lesson 18, note 87.]

83 [Antoine de Jussieu, see Volume 3, Lesson 10, note 30.]

84 [Botanicon Parisiense; ou, Dénombrement par ordre alphabétique des plantes, qui se trouvent aux environs de Paris, avec plusieurs descriptions des plantes, leurs synonymes, le tems de fleurir & de grainer et une critique des auteurs de botanique par feu Monsieur Sébastien Vaillant, Leiden: Jean & Herman Verbeek; Amsterdam: Balthazar Lakeman, 1727, [29] + xii + map + 206 + [10] p., 33 pls.]

85 [See note 80, above.]

86 [Pellitory-of-the-wall, Parietaria officinalis, a plant of the nettle family often seen growing on old walls in and dry stony areas, used to treat fluid retention, constipation, and cough, as well as a variety of urinary tract disorders including urinary tract infections, kidney pain, and kidney stones.]

87 [Aura seminalis, a reference to the imagined power of the ovary of plants, like the uterus of animals, of absorption or suction of a fluid, which it communicates to the ovule or germ; the action by which the ovary draws to itself either the seed, or the vapor arising from it (aura seminalis), and which action is termed pollinic absorption in plants and impregnation in animals.]

88 [Claude-Joseph Geoffroy (born 8 August 1685, Paris; died 9 March 1752, Paris), a French apothecary and chemist, known as Geoffroy the Younger to distinguish him from his brother, Étienne François Geoffroy (1672-1731, see Volume 2, Lesson 13, note 21). With a considerable knowledge of botany, he devoted himself especially to the study of the essential oils in plants. In 1703 he became a master apothecary, and from 1704 to 1705 took scientific excursions throughout southern France. He then studied botany under Joseph Pitton de Tournefort (1707). In 1708, following the death of his father, he took charge of the family pharmacy. In May 1711 he was elected a member of the Académie Royale des Sciences. From 1707 to 1751, he published numerous articles in the Histoire et Mémoires de l’Académie royale des sciences.]

89 [“Observations sur la végétation des truffes.” Mémoires de mathématique et de physique de l’Académie royale des sciences, 1711 [published in 1714], pp. 23-35.]

90 [Patrick Blair, see Volume 3, Lesson 15, note 117.]

91 [Botanick essays. In two parts: the first containing, The Structure of the Flowers, and the Fructification of Plants, with their various Distributions into Method; and the second, The Generation of Plants, with their Sexes and Manner of impregnating the Seed; Also concerning the Animalcula in Semine Masculino. Together with The Nourishment of Plants, and Circulation of the Sap in all Seasons, analogous to that of the Blood in Animals. With Many Curious Remarks, and several Discoveries and Improvements. Adorned with Figures. London: William & John Innys, 1720, xxxiv + 414 p.]

92 [Giulio Pontedera (born 7 May 1688; died 3 September 1757), an Italian botanist of Tuscan origin. He was professor of botany at Padua, and director of the botanical garden there. Although he rejected Carl Linnaeus’s sexual system of plant classification, he remained a correspondent and Linnaeus honored him with the name Pontederia, a genus of tristylous aquatic plants, members of which are commonly known as pickerel weeds, endemic to the Americas, distributed from Canada to Argentina, where it is found in shallow water or on mud.]

93 [Anthologia, sive, De floris natura libri tres, plurimis inventis, observationibusque ac aeneis tabulis ornati. Accedunt eiusdem dissertationes XI ex iis, quas habuit in horto publico Patavino anno 1719, quibus res botanica, & subinde etiam medica illustratur, Padua: Joannem Manfré, 1720, [18] + 296 + [28] p., 12 folded leaves of pls.]

94 [Sponsalia plantarum, quae, cum consensu Ampl. Facult. Medicae in Regia Acad. Upsaliensi, sub praesidio viri celeberrimi et experientissimi, D. D. Caroli Linnaei… publico bonorum examini submittit Johannes Gustavus Wahlbom, Calmariensis, in Audit. Carol. Majori die Junii Anni MDCCXLVI. Horis, ante meridiem consuetis. [Linnaean dissertation no. 12, On sex differentiation in plants, defended June 1746 by Johan Gustaf Wahlbom]. Stockholm: Laurentii Salvii, 1746, [6] + [7] + 8-60 + [2] p., 1 pl.]

95 [Joseph Gottlieb Koelreuter (see Volume 2, Lesson 18, note 33), author of Vorlaufige Nachricht von einigen das Geschlecht der Pflanzen betreffenden Versuchen und Beobachtungen. Leipzig: In der Gleditschischen Handlung, 1761, [6] + 50 p.]

96 [Jean-Étienne Guettard (born 22 September 1715, Étampes; died 7 January 1786, Paris), a French naturalist and mineralogist, who as young boy gained a knowledge of plants from his grandfather, who was an apothecary. Later, after he qualified as a doctor of medicine, he pursued the study of botany in various parts of France and other countries, taking notice of the relationship between the distribution of plants and that of soils and subsoils. In this way his attention came to be directed to rocks and minerals. In 1746, he published a memoir on the distribution of rocks and minerals, recording his observations on a map thus originating the construction of geological maps. He made observations also on the degradation of mountains by rain, rivers, and seas; and he was the first to ascertain the existence of former volcanoes in the district of Auvergne.]

97 [René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur, see Volume 2, Lesson 16, note 31.]

98 [Antoine de Jussieu, see note 83, above.]

99 [Observations sur les plantes. Paris: Durand, 1747, 2 vols in-duodecimo, [6] + xliii + [27] + 302 + [20] p., 4 pls; [2] + 464 + [24] p., 4 pls.]