Introduction

1Nowadays, about 405 species of birds can be observed in Cyprus, including 380 migratory species (Richardson and Porter 2020). Like the whole Levantine region, which constitutes a major migratory corridor, this island – the largest in the Eastern Mediterranean – is visited twice a year by birds moving between Eurasia and Africa. Many of them are just passage migrants, but some stay for breeding or wintering. Birds may therefore have represented a potentially rich and diverse food resource for insular people in the past; however, the prehistoric avifauna of Cyprus is still very poorly known. With more than 3000 remains recovered from anthropogenic levels, the richest and oldest assemblage comes from the Late Epipaleolithic site of Akrotiri-Aetokremnos studied by Mourer-Chauviré (in Simmons 1999), but Neolithic and later sites have generally yielded very few bird bones. Klimonas is not an exception, unfortunately, but the analysis of this assemblage offers significant information on the local environment and the fowling activities of its residents.

1. Material and methods

2The avian assemblage from Klimonas is relatively small, with a total of just 74 bones, 68 of which have been determined to the level of species, genus or family. Nearly 60% of the bones came from Sector B, while the remaining ones were found in the fill of Communal building St 10.

3Taxonomic identification was carried out using the reference collection of the Laboratoire d’Anatomie comparée in the Muséum national d’Histoire naturelle (MNHN, Paris) and that of the CEPAM laboratory (CNRS, UMR 7264, Nice). This work has also been based on comparative osteometric and morphological studies of some taxonomic groups, especially for geese (Bacher 1967), ducks (Woelfle 1967), medium-sized diurnal raptors (Otto 1981, Schmidt-Burger 1982), pigeons (Fick 1974) and corvids (Tomek and Bocheński 2000). The scientific names of the species are in accordance with the IOC World Bird List (Gill et al. 2020), except for Corvus corone for which we have kept the traditional classification which considers it as a single species (see Haring et al. 2007), including the carrion crow (C. c. corone) and the hooded crow (C. c. cornix).

4The state of bone preservation – generally incomplete, fragmented and often covered with fine but compact silt – has made the identification of certain elements particularly difficult, if not impossible. Thus, some very fragile remains could not be cleaned because of the high risk of damage to the surface or even the integrity of the specimen. Whenever possible, however, the surface of the bones was examined under a stereoscopic microscope to detect traces of human or animal modification.

2. Taxonomical spectrum

5The avifauna consists of at least 14 taxa: three species of geese (Anser anser or A. fabalis, A. albifrons and A. erythropus), three species of surface ducks (Anas platyrhynchos, A. crecca/Spatula querquedula and one or more medium-sized species), two diurnal raptors (Buteo buteo and Circus aeruginosus), the great bustard (Otis tarda), the common coot (Fulica atra), the common wood pigeon (Columba palumbus), the barn owl (cf. Tyto alba), the long-eared or short-eared owl (Asio sp.) and the carrion/hooded crow (Corvus corone) (tab. 26-1). The finds are presented hereafter according to the current systematic classification.

Tab. 26-1 – Avian species identified at Klimonas by contexts.

2.1. Anatidae – Ducks and geese

6This is the family best represented among the birds of Klimonas, primarily by the dabbling ducks (tab. 26-2). The Anatidae species are numerous in the Western Palearctic and are highly diverse, many of them migrating every year across the Eastern Mediterranean (Cramp and Simmons 1977, Richardson and Porter 2020).

Tab. 26-2 – Relative frequencies of bird bones in Sector B and Structure 10.

7According to the dimensions and anatomical criteria, the identified remains mainly belong to the subfamily Anatinae, and more particularly to species of the Anatini tribe. Long ago, surface ducks were grouped within the same genus Anas, but recent genetic analyses have led to the distinction of several genera within this tribe (Gonzalez et al. 2009). For example, the garganey (Anas querquedula) has been assigned to the genus Spatula, along with the northern shoveler (previously A. clypeata).

8The criteria for distinguishing between all the species in this group are not always present on the postcranial skeleton. As there were large size variations between the largest species, the mallard (A. platyrhynchos), and the smallest, the common teal (A. crecca), biometry proved useful. Among the Klimonas assemblage, the mallard is represented by four bones: a portion of tibiotarsal diaphysis from Sector B, and a proximal coracoid, a distal carpometacarpus and an incomplete first wing phalanx of digit II from the Central Sector. The occurrence of the common teal or the garganey is attested by a carpometacarpal from the Central Sector and by an incomplete coracoid (fig. 26-1, D), as well as a distal ulna found in Sector B. Using metric references (Woelfle 1967), some bones which could not be specifically determined could be categorized according to their size: a portion of femoral diaphysis and a distal radius of a large or medium-sized Anatini; and three proximal coracoids, a distal fragment of carpometacarpus, a scapula (fig. 26-1, F) and a tibiotarsal diaphysis of medium-sized Anatini. These last elements could belong to species other than those already identified, such as the pintail (A. acuta), the gadwall (Mareca strepera), the Eurasian wigeon (M. penelope), or the northern shoveler (S. clypeata). Finally, six long bone fragments and anterior phalanges of ducks could not be more precisely -attributed.

Fig. 26-1 – Bird bone remains from Klimonas.

9Diving ducks seem to be totally absent from this assemblage, with the possible exception of a fragment of distal humerus (from Sector B) whose morphology is similar to that of the pochards (cf. Aythya) and whose dimensions are close to A. fuligula. However, this identification must be considered with caution due to the fragmentary and altered appearance of the piece.

10Ducks are frequently encountered in the Epipaleolithic and Pre-Pottery Neolithic sites of the Near East (e.g. Pichon 1984a, Gourichon 2004, Yeomans and Richter 2018), where dabbling ducks generally predominate proportionally over diving ducks. In Cyprus, their remains are rarely mentioned and even at the site of Akrotiri-Aetokremnos, only Anas crecca has been identified from five remains among 529 identified bird bones (Mourer-Chauviré in Simmons 1999).

11Among the Anatidae, geese (Anserinae) are also relatively common. Again, the distinction between the different species of Anser is not always easy due to the great intraspecific variation (Bacher 1967). At least three species are present here. The greater white-fronted goose (A. albifrons) and the lesser white-fronted goose (A. erythropus) are each clearly attested by a proximal radius (from the Central Sector in both cases), as indicated by their size distribution (fig. 26-2). Another larger species, the grey goose (A. anser) or the bean goose (A. fabalis), is represented by a distal carpometacarpus (Bd = 12.1 mm; Dd = 7.6 mm) found in Sector B. Other fragmentary remains of Anser (humerus, radius, tibiotarsus, wing phalanges, carpal bones) could not be determined precisely (fig. 26-1, A-C) but correspond mostly to large individuals.

Fig. 26-2 – Metric comparison of geese distal radii from Klimonas with those of current geese species (data based on Bacher 1967 for Anser fabalis, A. anser and A. albifrons). Cross symbols: A. erythropus; black triangles: specimens from Klimonas.

12Geese were prime game for some early Neolithic communities in the Near East, as at Jerf el-Ahmar and Mureybet in the Middle Euphrates (Gourichon 2002, 2004) and Hallan Çemi (Zeder and Spitzer 2016) near the Upper Tigris. Regarding the Cypriot prehistoric context, this group has been identified in relatively large quantities (78 remains) at Akrotiri-Aetokremnos (Mourer-Chauviré in Simmons 1999) and one incomplete furcula of cf. Anser was recovered from Sector 3 at Shillourokambos (Vigne 2021).

3. Spatial distribution and stratigraphy

25The assemblage is not large enough to analyse the distribution of bird remains by stratigraphic unit, but their origin indicates a wide dispersion over the different sectors of the site. A few observations can be made from the general contexts. As shown in table 26-1, the specific diversity is as high as in Sector B (at least 11 taxa for 41 identified remains) and Central Sector (at least 9 taxa for 27 bones); the differences are only remarkable in terms of proportions. The great bustard remains are relatively more numerous in Sector B (29.3%) than in the Central Sector (7.4%) – a difference which is statistically significant (z = -2.2805). On a finer scale, it can be noticed that some of the bird bones come from non-structural contexts, in comparable proportions (41% in Sector B, 37% in the Central Sector), which further limits interpretation (tab. 26-1).

4. Preservation and skeletal representation

28As noted above, the bones are generally fragmented. The only complete elements are three short bones (a wing phalanx of a bustard, a pedal phalanx of a goose and another one of Asio sp.) and the coracoid of a coot with a damaged proximal extremity. No direct anatomical connection was observed, although a few of the bone sets could belong to the same individual. This is most likely the case for the marsh harrier phalanges (Structure 10, F24), but it may also concern:

• a left ulna and a left radius of a large to medium-sized duck found in Building B08 (US 6010-6011);
• the right wing tip (carpometacarpus and wing phalanx) of a mallard from the second phase of the Communal building;
• elements of the left scapular girdle (coracoid and scapula) of a medium-sized duck coming from the same building.

29With regard to body part representation, the numbers are too small to make a detailed analysis; however, using general taxonomic categories and calculating the proportions according to the procedure elaborated by Gourichon (2004) some remarks can be made (tab. 26-4).

30For geese, the most frequent remains are wing skeletal parts (8/10). This is also the case for ducks (10/20), although a major difference here is the importance of the scapular girdle elements (seven coracoids and one scapula). This distribution is comparable to that observed for the ducks hunted at Mureybet and Jerf el-Ahmar (Gourichon 2004). At these PPNA sites, geese are mostly represented by the scapular girdle and the humeri. This apparent divergence from the Klimonas pattern may not be significant given the small size of the sample studied here.

31For the great bustard, except for a transversally sawn femur (see below), the bones seem to mainly correspond to limb extremity elements: radii, carpometacarpi, tibiotarsi, tarsometatarsi, wing and posterior phalanges. This contrasts with the observations made by Mourer-Chauviré on the bustard remains from Akrotiri-Aetokremnos (Simmons 1999) where coracoids and humeri were the best-preserved skeletal parts. It may be an effect of the small sample size; however, the specialist highlighted a balanced representation between the wing and leg elements. This is also the case in Klimonas (7/7; tab. 26-4), as well as at other PPN sites, such as Jerf el-Ahmar and Dja’de el Mughara (Gourichon 2004), and in the Upper Palaeolithic site of Klissoura Cave 1 (Bocheński and Tomek 2010, table 6). It should also be noted that wing bones were more common than leg bones in males and vice versa in females (tab. 26-3).

32Although the other taxonomic groups yielded very few remains, it is remarkable that out of the nine diurnal and nocturnal raptor remains, which belong to four different species, seven are pedal phalanges. The over-representation of the leg extremities, and in particular the phalanges, is a phenomenon frequently observed at several PPNA sites on the continent, such as Mureybet (Pichon 1984a; Gourichon 2004), Jerf el-Ahmar (Gourichon 2002, 2004), Netiv Hagdud (Tchernov 1994) and Hallan Çemi (Zeder and Spitzer 2016).

5. Cut marks and traces of burning

33The state of preservation of the bones and the frequent concretions did not offer optimal conditions for detecting possible traces of modification, which may have disappeared due to alteration of the surface of the periosteum or are invisible under the concretions. No butchery traces sensu stricto (disarticulation, defleshing, skinning, etc) were observed, not even among the most frequent taxa. The only modified bones, two humeri and one tarsometatarsus, seem to have been “worked” or be offcuts from the manufacture of bone objects, with no direct link to food purposes.

Fig. 26-3 – Great bustard (Otis tarda) bones from Klimonas. A: right distal carpometacarpus (female size); B-C: left distal tarsometatarsus (female size) perforated above the medium trochlea (anterior and posterior views); D: left distal tibiotarsus (female size); E: left distal tarsometatarsus (male size).

Fig. 26-4 – Goose humerus sawn in the first proximal third of the diaphysis with cut-mark details.

Fig. 26-5 – Femoral diaphysis of a male great bustard sawn in the proximal part with cut-mark details. The specimen is broken into two longitudinal fragments (posterior on the left, anterior on the right) which cannot be reunited without restoration.

34The left humerus of a goose (Anser sp.) has the proximal diaphysis cut transversely by sawing below the deltoid crest (fig. 26-4). This incomplete and relatively damaged element (the proximal epiphysis is missing) corresponds to an offcut: the diaphysis may have been used as a tube or container (tubular objects) or as a raw material for making needles (e.g. Serjeantson 2009, p. 216, fig. 9.4). The diaphyseal portion of a great bustard’s left femur (probably a male), broken into several pieces, also shows traces of sawing in the first proximal third of the diaphysis (fig. 26-5). This specimen, like the previous one, could be related to the fabrication of tubular objects, but it is not possible here to specify whether this is the artefact itself or the unused part. In both cases, the sawing is not completely straight and numerous striations below the fracture plane suggest an approximate and not very meticulous cut. The rare cases of sawn bird bones known from the Early Neolithic in the Near East are, for example, a duck humerus (teal-sized) from the Khiamian levels at Mureybet (personal observation) and another great bustard humerus found at Dja’de el Mughara (Gourichon 2004).

35Finally, a female great bustard distal tarsometatarsus is perforated from side to side just above the central trochlea (fig. 26-3, B, C). The perforation is perfectly circular with rectilinear walls in respect to the bone surface. There are no clear drill marks on the periphery of the hole, no perforation cone, apart from a slight polish on the edges of the anterior side (fig. 26-6). This modification is clearly of anthropogenic origin given the circularity of the hole and the sharpness of the edges. However, its discovery evokes the observation made by Mourer-Chauviré on a bustard tarsometatarsus from Akrotiri-Aetokremnos: “Among the first elements received for identification from the 1987 excavation was a distal part of a tarsometatarsus, which presented a foramen on the anterior face just above the middle trochlea (fig. 7-10:c).This foramen does not exist in recent forms. However, the tarsometatarsi from later seasons did not exhibit such a foramen (fig. 7-10:e), and it was probably a pathological feature” (Mourer-Chauviré in Simmons 1999, p. 174-175). This discrete anatomical feature, if not a simple pathology occurring during the ossification and fusion of metatarsals II, III and IV during growth, could have regularly affected some individuals of the Cypriot population of great bustards until the beginning of the Holocene. This foramen clearly has a circular edge on the distal part, close to the trochlea, but this depression does not penetrate the entire bone as can be seen on the posterior surface of the same element (Simmons 1999, fig. 7-10:d). It is located at the exact location of the perforation on the tarsometatarsus from Klimonas. If this is not a mere coincidence, perhaps this foramen was already naturally present on the tarsometatarsus and was used as a guide to achieve the complete perforation. However, the other bustard tarsometatarsus found at Klimonas (fig. 26-3, C), which is not perforated, does not have such a depression.

Fig. 26-6 – Distal tarsometatarsus of a female great bustard, perforated above the medium trochlea, with perforation details.

36The function of this object is difficult to establish, notably because the diaphyseal part as well as the lateral trochlea were broken during the excavation and the fragments are missing. The central and medial trochleae are eroded, possibly worn, but this type of alteration is also observed on many specimens and could be post-depositional. To my knowledge there is no comparable example in the Near Eastern Neolithic register. Among the bone industry of Çatalhöyük, Russell mentions a pointed tool made from a crane tarsometatarsus (Russell 2019, fig. 7), but the distal epiphysis, which is the inactive part, is not perforated. Unfortunately, it is not possible to estimate the original volume of the specimen from Klimonas, or to determine whether or not the other end of the bone had been worked. If this object was a pointed tool, it may be that the hole was used as a means of suspension (cf. chap. 18 for other perforated bone artefacts).

37Traces of butchery (and burning) remain relatively limited on the bird bones from Pre-Pottery Neolithic sites (Gourichon 2004), even during the Natufian period (Pichon 1984a), which differs considerably from the intensive treatment of the bones of certain species (ptarmigan, snowy owl) at the end of the Upper Palaeolithic in Western Europe (e.g. Laroulandie 2000, 2016, Goffette et al. 2020). Some remains show brown or black spots that are not easy to diagnose. They were probably produced by diagenetic processes (manganese? iron?) rather than by direct contact with a heat source. A distal coot carpometacarpus from Structure 10 (phase 1b) is the only clearly burnt bird bone. The bone is entirely black, charred, which is not necessarily related to a cooking activity.

6. Environment and seasonality

38With the exception of two species of small passerines and a few subspecies such as the Cyprus scops owl (Richardson and Porter 2020), there are very few bird species endemic to Cyprus, as in the rest of the Mediterranean, unlike amphibians, reptiles or mammals, for example (Covas and Blondel 1998). Neither are there any particular endemic forms of Pleistocene fossil bird species known (Alcover et al. 1992).

39For several millennia human pressure has impacted the avifauna living on the island or visiting it during migration. However, all the species identified at Klimonas are still observed in Cyprus today, with the exception of the lesser white-fronted goose and the great bustard, which are considered accidental or vagrant. Some species such as the greylag goose and the greater white-fronted goose are uncommon visitors (Richard and Porter 2020). The distribution of the lesser white-fronted goose was certainly much more widespread, as evidenced by the bones found in several Pre-Pottery Neolithic sites in Syria (Gourichon 2000, 2004) and Anatolia (Russell 2019). As already mentioned, the great bustard represents the major part of the avian assemblage of Akrotiri-Aetokremnos (Mourer-Chauviré in Simmons 1999) and was regularly hunted during the Neolithic in the Near East and the northern Mediterranean Basin. It is absent in the PPNB faunal remains from Shillourokambos (Vigne 2021) and Mylouthkhia (Croft in Peltenburg 2003). Its current scarcity is due to over-hunting and the transformation of its habitats. This species has a very wide geographical distribution, from the great plains of Central Asia and China to the Iberian Peninsula and northern Morocco, passing through Turkey and Central and Northern Europe (Cramp and Simmons 1980). It lives in open landscapes, such as flat or slightly undulating steppes, pastureland or cultivated areas. In Cyprus, past populations were found in grasslands or areas of low vegetation. They were most likely resident, as suggested by Mourer-Chauviré (ibid.), and their numbers should have significantly increased in winter with the arrival of migrant flocks from the northern regions.

40The avifauna of Klimonas comprises a high proportion of wetland taxa such as ducks, geese and coots. They can be found on fresh water, sometimes on brackish water for S. clypeata, A. platyrhynchos and A. crecca, as well as in marshlands and, especially for geese, wet meadows. This environment is also the preferred habitat of the marsh harrier. Wood pigeons, crows and common buzzards may indicate the presence of light woodlands, but the last two species, which are relatively ubiquitous, are also found in open land and marshes (reed beds). Among the genus Asio, the long-eared owl is today a common breeder in Cyprus where it favours large bushes for roosting. According to Richardson and Porter (2020), the short-eared owl is primarily a passage migrant which follows coastal routes, usually resting on sea cliffs.

41As summarised in table 26-5, the bird spectrum of Klimonas is very similar to that of Akrotiri-Aetokremnos, only about twenty kilometres along the coastline and surrounded by extensive wetlands and swamps. Almost the same number of taxa can be found there, although the assemblage is much larger in the Epipaleolithic site. This illustrates the great diversity of the avifauna of Klimonas and suggests that environmental conditions in the southern part of the island changed little in the Early Holocene compared to the Younger Dryas. The absence of other aquatic species such as grebes and cormorants, although present in Akrotiri-Aetokremnos, is noteworthy. This spectrum contrasts with the very small avian assemblage from the nearby PPNB site of Shillourokambos, which is dominated by open land (quail, partridge, kestrel) and anthropophilic (crow) species (Vigne 2021).

42Most of the species identified (geese, ducks, common buzzard, marsh harrier) are mainly winter visitors (Richardson and Porter 2020). There is no evidence (such as juvenile bones, egg-laying bird medullary bone) of individuals caught during the warm season, although several species may have been hunted throughout the year. The mallard, the common coot, the crow, the wood pigeon, and the long-eared owl are indeed resident in Cyprus. This may also have been the case for the great bustard, considering that its populations, as well as those of mallards, coots and pigeons, must have been larger in winter or during migration seasons.

7. Fowling in Early Neolithic Cyprus

43As previously described, the striking resemblance between the avifaunas of Klimonas and Akrotiri-Aetokremnos shows that the bird hunters focused on more or less the same species. It is difficult to determine whether this coincidence is due to opportunistic behaviour linked to the abundance and accessibility of these game fowl in a similar environment or to cultural and dietary preferences.

44On the Cypriot sites contemporary with Klimonas, some information is missing. Thus, in Akanthou-Arkosykos bird remains are not mentioned among the fauna (Sevketoglu and Hanson 2015) and no details are given on the quantity and identification of birds found at Ayia Varvara-Asprokremnos (McCartney 2017). Some later Pre-Pottery Neolithic sites have yielded scant bird bones: they are represented by only a few species at Shillourokambos (Vigne 2011a, 2021a), Khirokitia (Pichon 1984b) and Mylouthkia (Croft in Peltenburg 2003).

45At Akrotiri-Aetokremnos, the great bustard was certainly the most consumed animal, along with shellfish, since the hypothesis of large endemic fauna exploitation (dwarf hippopotamus and dwarf elephant) has been ruled out and the remains of suids were found in small numbers in the anthropogenic layer (Vigne et al. 2009, Zazzo et al. 2015; chap. 24, 29). At Klimonas, the bustard is certainly secondary compared to the wild boar; however, this bird was probably a prime game species for the first inhabitants of the island because of its abundance, the large amount of meat provided by a single individual and its gregarious behaviour which sometimes brings together several hundred individuals during severe climatic conditions (Cramp and Simmons 1980). It is worth recalling that it was particularly targeted at the end of the Pleistocene in the Mediterranean, such as in Southern Italy (Cassoli and Tagliacozzo 1997) and the Peloponnese (Bocheński and Tomek 2010), as well as at the beginning of the Holocene in some other insular contexts, such as Corsica (Cuisin and Vigne 1998), the island of Youra (Trantalidou 2008) and Rhodes (Halstead and Jones 1987). This trend was also reported for the 10^th and 9^th millennia in the continental Near East. Indeed, the great bustard was one of the most hunted birds at Hallan Çemi (Zeder and Spitzer 2016), along with partridges and geese, and is the most abundant non-mammalian species at the Early PPNB site of Dja’de el Mughara, where they represent more than two thirds of the avian assemblage (Gourichon 2004).

46Like in several continental Pre-Pottery Neolithic sites located near rivers or lakes (Pichon 1984a, Gourichon 2004, Helmer and Gourichon 2008, Zeder and Spitzer 2016, Yeomans and Richter 2018), waterfowl were particularly hunted at Klimonas. This is also the case for birds of prey, which were almost systematically the subject of interest at the end of the Pleistocene and the beginning of the Holocene, for food consumption and the exploitation of a variety of products (feathers, claws, long bones). The phalanges of the two nocturnal raptors and the marsh harrier found at Klimonas could have been specifically collected and used as tools or decorative elements, as was suggested for the over-representation of raptor pedal phalanges in several Natufian and Pre-Pottery Neolithic settlements (Pichon 1984a, Gourichon 2002, 2004, Yeomans and Richter 2018); however, no evidence of modification was recorded on these specimens. In general, and mainly due to the poor state of bone preservation, the assemblage also failed to provide information on the post-mortem treatment of the bird carcasses. Only two long bones, a goose humerus and a great bustard femur, were sawn to produce tubular objects, and a great bustard tarsometatarsus was intentionally perforated for an unknown purpose.

47As already pointed out for most of the isolated Mediterranean islands (Alcover et al. 1992), the absence of the Phasianidae, which were frequently hunted at the same time on the continent, should be noted. The chukar partridge (Alectoris chukar) and the black francolin (Francolinus francolinus) are common resident species in Cyprus nowadays and were probably introduced later. The humeral diaphysis of cf. Alectoris found at Shillourokambos may indicate the introduction of the partridge (chukar?) at least from the mid-8^th millennia BC (Vigne 2021a). More surprising is the absence of the only migratory phasianid in the Western Palearctic, the common quail (Coturnix coturnix), which can be abundant during their autumn migration and are still hunted in their thousands by Cretan hunters (Richardson and Porter 2020). This bird was identified at Shillourokambos (Vigne 2021a) and is also particularly frequent in sites of the Southern Levant dated from the beginning of the Holocene (Pichon 1994, Tchernov 1994).

48Lastly, despite the meticulous excavation techniques, the remains of small Passeriformes are totally absent. It seems, therefore, that the culinary tradition of ambelopoulia, which is much disputed today for birdlife protection reasons, was not practiced in Cyprus 10,000 years ago.