1October 2012

2The earliest evidence of Chinese writing goes back to the 13^th century BCE, which makes it the oldest form of writing in East Asia.

3Unlike the early development of writing in Egypt and Mesopotamia during the fourth millennium BCE, Chinese writing from its earliest discovery was already a fully developed system that reflected the different elements of the language. Certain specialists consider the possibility of a less developed, earlier stage, but no evidence of this has been discovered. Other scholars consider that the lack of standardization of the writing indicates that the system must have been invented at that time or slightly earlier. In any case, it is without doubt the ancestor of modern Chinese writing. Although the writing appears to be more archaic, the principles of character forming are generally the same.

4It was during the last period of the Shang dynasty (1250-1050 BCE) that the first inscriptions in Chinese appeared on various objects. These objects were linked to the aristocracy, and most were used in ritual practices, such as divination and ancestral cults. Thousands of inscriptions are found on bronze ritual vases, most of which are very short (one to three characters) and give the names of ancestors and lineages. In addition, thousands of inscriptions are found on cattle bones and tortoise shells (more than 100 000 fragments) used for divination. Most of the inscriptions are short summaries of divinations, carved after completion of the mantic practice, although some were used several times and thus consisted of more than 200 characters. The writing used in this type of inscription is not very carefully done, unlike the more solemn characters that appear on more luxurious objects, such as bronzes.

5More than 90% of the inscriptions from the Shang period excavated by archaeologists came from the Anyang region, where the capital of the kingdom was established. Writing thus appears first to have been the purview of small groups of people linked to the royal household. In the context of proximity between the writers and the readers and the very limited range of subjects treated in these inscriptions, the Shang population may not have felt the need for greater standardization of their writing.

6The Zhou were enemies and then allies of the Shang. When the Zhou finally overthrew the Shang around 1050 BCE, they had already adopted the Shang form of writing and the written language for several years. The history of the Zhou dynasty is traditionally divided into two periods: western and eastern. The former corresponds to a time of relative unity and stability. Although the Chinese world at that time consisted of various states, most of the lords recognized the authority of the King of Zhou, whose capital was established in the Xi’an region.

7Most of the inscriptions from the western Zhou period are dedications on bronze ritual vases and were longer than the Shang inscriptions, generally stating: “X made such a vase for Z”. In longer inscriptions, which developed in aristocratic circles close to the King and which consisted of several tens of characters (the longest nearly 500 signs), the dedication was accompanied by references to official investitures by the king. Such texts remained associated with ancestor worship but were also aimed at strengthening the status of the owner of the vase in relation to other members of the aristocracy.

8During the western Zhou period, writing was no longer confined to the circles close to the royal house. This wider diffusion of writing was due partly to the political system put into place by the Zhou and particularly to the large number of regional lords belonging to the Royal family. Mentions in Zhou inscriptions also illustrate the pragmatic use of writing, while no trace is found during the Shang dynasty. References were made to documents, probably written on scrolls of bamboo slats, concerning official ceremonies, land exchanges and judgements. These new written practices were particularly well developed at the Zhou court and within the Royal house but were also adopted, on a smaller scale, by aristocrats in other regions. The regional elites thus maintained close relationships with the Royal household, generally accepting its political and cultural supremacy. Therefore, standardization of Chinese writing, as seen in the evolution of the inscriptions of those close to the Royal family, also occurred in all the sinicized states. Although Chinese writing was used in an area extending from the west of the current Shaanxi province to Beijing (more than 1000 km as the crow flies), there is a high degree of uniformity in the writing. This unity must have contrasted with the linguistic diversity of the inhabitants of this vast territory. Nevertheless, the elites, many of were from Zhou, must have spoken the same language and at least expressed themselves in one language with the same form of writing. Differences began to appear only after the end of the western Zhou.

9In 771 BCE, following invasions by enemies and internal tensions, the Zhou Royal household was forced to abandon its capital and its home territory in Shaanxi province and took refuge in the secondary capital of the Kingdom, in what is now known as Luoyang in Henan province. The Zhou Royal house thus lost most of its original territory and was consequently deprived of one of its main sources of legitimacy.

10During the eastern Zhou period (770-256 BCE), the most powerful states struggled bitterly to assert their power and to extend their authority over other countries. The use of writing thus became increasingly important, especially when new administrative practices were developed for efficient control of expanding territories. Handwriting evolved to meet these new needs and for taking notes rapidly. It was during this period that numerous words appeared in the written vocabulary and new characters were created to replace others that were considered too ambiguous. These changes occurred at a time when the Zhou form of writing was no longer as effective a model as it had been. The evolution of writing thus differed by country, and regional variants of Chinese writing appeared, characterized by specific written forms, vocabulary and choices of characters to denote words. This was a unique period in the history of writing. However, despite the differences, similarities dominate. It should be remembered that all writing stems from one origin: Zhou writing, inherited from the Shang dynasty.

11Archaeologists have discovered much material on the usages of writing in the eastern Zhou period that had not been seen in previous periods: seals, manuscripts, coins, public inscriptions on erected stones or rocks, etc. Despite the problem of the conservation of such materials, it is clear that this sudden diversification of written evidence reflects an evolution in writing practices. Also during this period, styles of writing were developed for aesthetic reasons, the forms of which sometimes taking precedence over their intelligibility.

12By 221 BCE, the King of Qin had unified all the sinicized countries and adopted the title of First Emperor. The unification of writing that was claimed did not result in the creation of a new writing system that synthesized the existing writing traditions. Qin simply imposed his own tradition on all the other territories under the authority of the Emperor. This policy resulted in the disappearance of other regional variants of Chinese writing that had developed over more than three centuries. The new standards were imposed simultaneously throughout the Empire and for a long time. This success can be explained by the fact that the Qin form of writing was closest to that of western Zhou, the common origin of all the regional variants. The extent and functioning of Qin centralized administration also contributed.

13The Qin dynasty lasted only 15 years, but, even after its collapse in 207 BCE, the principle of a single form of writing was not called into question. The next dynasty, the Han, which ruled from 206 BCE to 220 CE, kept many things established by the Qin, especially regarding administration.

14Chinese writing continued to spread more widely in society and to change. From the Qin period, the Han society developed a less rounded writing called “scribe writing’. The writing was wider than its height, and there was a strong contrast between thin and thick strokes. At the same time, the structure of the characters was standardized. Cursive writing was developed for note-taking or drafting, and clean copies were produced in a finer form of scribe writing.

15The last phase of the evolution of Chinese writing occurred progressively between the 3^rd and 6^th centuries CE and finished with modern Chinese writing.

Conclusion

16Written evidence revealed by archaeologists shows that the evolution of the form of Chinese writing was not independent of the evolution of the Chinese society but accompanied it. When writing appeared in China, it was a marginal practice involving limited groups close to the king. It then spread to the higher classes and to groups of writing professionals, who became more and more important in society as the first administrations were formed. In parallel, writing expanded to new social categories and new occupations. The evolution of Chinese writing must be understood in the dynamic context of responding to new needs and reaching a wider and wider audience of diverse backgrounds and also in light of historical events.